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(X)I^YKI(;ilT DKI'OSIT. 



Cfje Ctural <;^cience Series; 

Edited by L, H. Bailey 



FORAGE CROPS 



dje Ctural Science ^tvit^ 

The Soil 

The SPRAYiN'i OF Plants. 

Milk and Its Products. 

The Fertility of the Land. 

The Principles of Fruit-Grov:inCt. 

Bush-Fruits. 

Fertilizers. 

The Principles of Agriculture. 

Rural Wealth and Welfake. 

The Farmstead. 

The Principles of Vegetable-Gardening. 

Farm Poultry. 

The Fsed!N(; of Animals. 

The Farmer's Business Handbook. 

Irrigation and Drainage. 

The Care of Animals. 

The Horse. 

How to Choose a Farm. 

Forage Crops. 



4* ;^^^^|2^'?<55"^'5 1^^ ^ 




FORAGE CROPS 



FOR SOILING, SILAGE, HAY 
AND PASTURE 



BY 
EDWARD B. V00EHEE8, D.Sc. 

DIKECTOR OF THE NEW JERSEY EXPERIMENT STATIONS, AND 
PROFESSOR OF AQRlCUiyrURE IN RUTGERS COLLEGE 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 
1907 

All rights resfroed 



[LltfHARY of CONGRESS 
Two Coole« Received 

OCT 4 »90f 

CLASS A XXCj. NOi 
COPYB. 



^ 



^ 



'i") 



Nl^ 



Copyright, 1907 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY 



Set up anil electrotyped 
Published September, 1907 



Mount ^^Ifaaant T^tesa 

Horace MtFarland Company 
Harrisburg, Fa. 



^=5.!. 



PREFACE 

This work is intended to give brief and practical 
farming snggestions that will be helpfnl in the 
growing and using of forage crops. Special atten- 
tion has been given to soiling crops and to rota- 
tions, in order to suggest a continuous supply of 
forage throughout the growing season, a subject 
of increasing importance to dairy farmers in the 
vicinity of large cities. 

These suggestions for both crops and rotations 
have been found to be satisfactory in practice, but 
the work must be carefully planned if it is to prove 
successful. The systems of forage-crop rotations 
here outlined are intensive, and to secure the full 
benefits from their adoption the cropping must be 
accompanied l)y liberal use of manures and fertil- 
izers and by extra good tillage. 

The suggested improvements in the systems of 
rotation for general farm practice, where grain 
crops are the chief olgect, have also been found to 
be practicable for many conditions, although they 

(v) 



VI ' PBEFA CE 

are yet largely experimental, and in use mainly on 
small farms; their adoption, however, would result 
both in increasing the yield and quality of forage 
from a given area, and, if judiciously carried out, 
result in a better preparation of the land for grain 
crops. 

No attempt has been made to discuss all crops 
that may be used for forage, although those which 
have been found of service under special condi- 
tions have been included, as, for example, the 
millets, kafirs and a few of the less well-known 
grasses. The data in reference to these, however, 
have been drawn largely from the experience of 
others. Special attention has been given to the 
legumes, as their use is of the utmost value in 
any system of forage cropping, and many of those 
recently introduced possess such habits as to per- 
mit their use without interfering with regular grain- 
crop rotations. 

E. B. VOORHEES. 

Now Bnmswiok, N. Jo 
May, 1007. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I 

PAGE 

General View of Forage Crops 1-12 

The measures of value in forage crops 2 

Importance of succulent foods for dairy cows G 

Regional questions 9 

Pastures and meadows 11 



CHAPTER II 

Forage Crops for Hay and for Improving the Land . . 13-2G 

Hay standards 15 

Improvement of rotations 17 

Land and seeding 23 

Harvesting and curing 25 



CHAPTER III 

Forage Crops for Soiling 27-45 

Balanced rations 28 

Soiling versus pasturing 30 

Cost of nutrients in soiling crops 32 

Experiments to determine the cost of nutrients .... 33 

Rotation systems 34 

The rotations must be carefully planned 38 

Plant-food must be provided 40 

PreparPvtion of land 41 

Cover-crops 42 

Forage-crop rations 43 

Summer silage 44 

(vii) 



Viii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER IV 

PAGE 

Straw Cereals and Green -Forage Grasses 46-72 

Rye as a forage crop 40 

VVlieat as a forage crop 5(5 

Oats as a forage crop GO 

Barley <)t 

Orchard -grass 0,1 

Italian rye-grass 70 

CHAPTER V 

Millets and Teosinte 73-94 

Barnyard millet 74 

Foxtail millets 80 

Pearl or c t-tail millet 85 

Broom -corn or proso millet 9!) 

Teosinte 94 

CHAPTER VI 

The Kafir and Durra Corns 95-121 

Kafir corn for dr}^ regions 102 

CHAPTER VII 
The Sweet Sorghums 122-131 

CHAPTER VIII 

Maize or Indian Corn 132-152 

Corn f<n' green forage or soiling 133 

Sweet corn for green foiage 14!$ 

Corn-stalks or stover 1-49 



cox TENTS IX 

CHAPTER IX 

TAGE 

Corn for Silage 153-160 

CHAPTER X 
Leguminous Forage Crops 1G7-173 

CHAPTER XI 

Combination Crops avith Legumes 175-208 

Oats-and-peas for forage 175 

Oats-and-vetch 187 

Barley -and -peas 189 

Warm -season combinations 190 

Mixed grasses and clovers 194 

CHAPTER XII 
Alfalfa 209-230 

CHAPTER XIII 

The Clovers . . .' 231-252 

The red clovers 231 

Alsike clover 240 

Crimson clover 242 

White clover 251 

CHAPTER XIV 

Other Leguminous Forage Crops 253-274 

Cowpea 253 

Soybeans 2G4 

Velvet bean 266 

Vetches 209 

Broad or horse bean 272 

Japan clover 273 



CONTtJNTS 



CHAPTER XV 

PAGE 

Root-Crops . . , 275-291 

Mangels 279 

Sugar-beet 28G 

Carrot 287 

Turnip and rutabaga 288 

Potato 290 

Sweet potato 291 



CHAPTER XVI 

The Cabbage Tribe 292-310 

Rape 292 

Cabbage 301 

Kohlrabi 308 

CHAPTER XVn 

Permanent Meadows and Pastures 311-327 

Meadows 312 

Permanent pastures 322 

CHAPTER XVm 

Bermuda Grass and Russian Brome Grass 328-343 

Bermuda grass 328 

Russian Brome grass 343 

CHAPTER XIX 

Composition, Fertilizer and Coefficient Tables . . . 344-374 

I. Average composition of feeding stuffs 347 

II. Fertilizer ingredients of fodders and feeds .... 358 
III. Coefficients of digestibility of feed stuffs 366 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. page 

1. Field of forage corn. Minnesota. (('. P. Bull) Fiontlsjiiece 

2. Harvesting a grain crop in the rotation (Henry Troth) ^0 

3. Rye, at best stage of niaturit}^ for soiling 47 

4. Head of Barnyard millet (M. A. Carleton) 75 

5. Barnyard millet (Panicum Crus-galli) 77 

6. Barnyard millet, ready for soiling forty five days from seeding. 

Yield, fourteen tons per acre 78 

7. Common millet. Al>oiit natural size (M. A. Carleton) 8() 

8. (Terman millet. Nearly natural size (M. A. Carleton) 81 

9. Hungarian millet. About natural size (M. A. Carleton).. 82 

10. Golden Wonder millet. About three-fourths natural size (M. A. 

Carleton ) 8.3 

11. (-ferman and Pearl millets, seeded on same day. German millet 

to the left, Pearl millet to the right 87 

12. Pearl millet ( Peiin it^i'tum spicafKm ) 80 

1.3. Broom-corn millet { Pdincum mUhiceum) (M. A. Carleton) 91 

14. Seeds or grains of Broom-corn millet 92 

l~). Teosinte. Note the branching or bushy habit of the ]>lant 9.3 

16. Black-hulled White kafir corn !»(i 

17. Typical head of Black-hulled White kafir corn (A. M. Ten E^ck) !)8 

18. Typical head of Red kafir corn (A. M. Ten Eyck) 101 

19. Yellow milo maize, one of the doura group 102 

20. Typical head of Dwarf milo maize, a form or strain of the Yellow 

milo maize 10.") 

21. Forms of kafir corn, a'ul a sweet sorghum. (1) Brown doura; 

(2) Black-hulled White kafir corn; (3) Red kafir corn; (4) 
Kavanaugh sorghum; (5) Yellow milo maize; (6) Large 

African millet, or White milo maize 108 

22. Yellow milo maize (to the left), and Rural Branching doura (to 

the right) Ill 

23. Millet (on the left); kafir corn (on the right) 112 

24. Roots of kafir corn, sixty days after planting 114 

25. Roots of sorghum, sixty days after planting 115 

(xi) 



Xll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. page 

2<j. Matured kafir corn roots 118 

\ 27. Matured sorj^liuni roots , 119 

28. Typical lieads of dififerent varieties of .sweet sorgliuin. Reading 

from left to riglit, the varieties are: (1) Early Amber; (2) 
Black Dwarf ; (.'5) Kansas Orange; (4) Coleman 124 

29. Field of Orange sorghum in Kansas 127 

30. Sorghum at good stage of maturity for soiling 128 

31. Fodder corn. Tlioiouglilired White Flint in New Jersey, after a 

croi) of oats-and-peas, yielding twelve tons of green forage 

to tlie acre i;!5 

32. (^>ni-liusker and shredder at work ( Internaliojial Harvester Co.) ir>2 

33. Oats-and-|)eas 174 

34. Oats-and-peas for soiling or for hay 178 

3.">. (^)ats-aiid-peas for soiling. A vigorous growth of l»oth plant.s 181 

30. Oats-and-peas, showing great vigor of the peas 182 

37. Oats-and-i)ea hay 185 

38. Oats-and-spring-vetch for soiling 188 

39. Wheat-and-winter-vetch for soiling. A poor stand of vetch 191 

40. Wheat-and-winter-vetch. A good stand of vetch 192 

41. Corn-and-cowpeas for silage, the cowpeas planted five days after 

the corn „ 19G 

42. Corn-and-cowpeas, planted after a soiling ci'op of wheat had been 

harvested ] 99 

43. Cowpeas-and-kahr-corn, showing height and thickness 200 

44. Cowpeas-and-katir-corn 205 

45. Sorghum-and-cowpeas, in rows, ready for soiling. Sorghum alone 

at the left; sorghum-and-cowpeas at the right 206 

4(j. Alfalfa in New Jersey, an acre yielding nineteen tons of green 

forage a year 213 

47. Alfalfa; first cutting in the season. Three feet tall and very 

thi(!k 220 

4S. First cutting of alfalfa. Ready for soiling May 27. New Jersey. 227 

49. Field of crimson clover, grown as a catch-crop seeded in corn at 

last cultivation 243 

50. Crimson clover ready for soiling. May 20. New Jersey 247 

51. The cowpea 255 

52. Cowpeas planted in rows and cultivated 259 

53. ('rop of cowpeas for soiling 260 

54. Field of cowj)eas, seeded after oats-and-peas and to be followed 

l>y rye 267 

55. Rye after cowpeas, without fertilizer 268 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XI U 

Fig. p^^'^"'-' 

5G. Germination of comnieri'ial cabbage and kohlrabi seed and num- 
ber of seeds in a pound (Cornell Experiment Station). The 
black bars show the number of thousand seeds in a pound; 
the li.yht biirs sliow the number of thousand that germinated IJOiJ 

57. Soli<i (at the left) and loose heads of cabbage (Cornell) 305 

58. Forms of cabbage heads. In order: Flat, spherical, obovate, 

oblong, conical (Cornell) -50/ 

5D. White Vienna kohlrabi. It is a heav\' yielder of both tubers and 
leaves. Background of six-inch squares (Cornell xperiment 

Station ) :!09 

(30. Meadow of mixed grasses: Timothy, red-top and Kentucky blue- 
grass "^l^ 

01. Harvesting scene in meadow of mixed grasses: Timothy, red-top 

and blue-grass 323 

02. Uromiia iiierinis (H. L. P.olley) 340 

63. Field of Russian brome grass {Bromus inermis) 343 



FORAGE CROPS 



CHAPTER I 

GENERAL VIEW OF FORAGE CROPS 

The subject of forage crops has grown rapidly 
in interest in recent years. This is due primarily 
to two causes, — to the general increase in knowl- 
edge of what constitutes a food, and the best 
method of using it ; and to the increase in demand 
for dairy products, especially of whole milk in 
large towns and cities, which makes it desirable 
that a larger supply of succulent food shall be 
raised by the farmers engaged in its production 
near the point of consumption. 

In a narrow sense, the term "forage crops" is 
frequently applied only to those crops that are 
suitable for use as green food, and thus the term 
conveys the idea of soiling, or carrying the foods 
in their green state from the field to the animal. 
In a broader sense, "forage crops," or perhaps 
better, "roughage crops," includes not only those 
suitable and adapted to soiling systems, but 
those used as pasture, for hay and for silage; or, 
in other words, it includes the entire number of 

A (1) 



2 FOB AGE CROPS 

crops of the different classes used to supply the 
roughage necessary in rations for farm animals, 
as well as to reduce the need for purchased feeds. 
In this book the term "forage crops" is used 
in the broadest sense. The common -language 
usage of forage (and which must prevail) would 
make the term a general one applying to all 
kinds of rough or coarse natural herbage food, such 
as animals might find freely provided by nature; 
as hay, pasture, herbage of maize, oats, cowpeas, 
vetch, sorghum. "Roughage" is practically synon- 
ymous, but is applied more particularly to the 
coarser kinds, that is, exclusive of hay and pas- 
ture. "Fodder" is the dried or cured herbage. 
"Soiling" is the feeding of animals on green herb- 
age that is cut and carried to them (as distin- 
guished from pasturing) . 

THE MEASURES OF VALUE IN FORAGE CROPS 

The value of any forage crop is determined by 
a number of conditions, the first, and in the long 
run probably the most important, being the actual 
food, or the amount of dry matter, that may be 
secured from a given area and its usefulness as 
measured by the kind and proportion of the 
nutrients contained in it. A second considera- 
tion is its adaptability and usefulness for the 
various purposes, as, for example, for a soiling 



MAIZE AS AN EXAMPLE OF FORAGE CROP 3 

crop, for pasture, for hay or for silage; third, its 
time of growth and season of maturity, as influ- 
encing its usefuhiess at specific times; and fourth, 
the nature of the plant, as having reference both 
to its composition as a food and the influence that 
its growth may exert on the fertility of the land. 

Indian corn, or maize, is very highly regarded 
as a general forage crop, because it can be 
grown successfully over a wide area. It is capable 
of producing a large yield of nutritive substance, 
highly digestible, very palatable, and relished by 
all farm stock. It serves an excellent purpose as 
a green forage for use in soiling; it can be so 
grown as to furnish succulent food through a com- 
paratively long period of the growing season ; it is 
the best crop to supply succulent winter food in 
the form of silage; it also serves as an excellent 
source of both dried roughage and of concentrates 
when ripened and handled in the usual way. It 
therefore fulfils in a larger degree than any other 
one plant the chief requirements of a forage crop. 
Because of its vigorous habit and its season of 
growth, it is capable of acquiring its food from 
sources not so readily available to other plants; 
therefore, good results can be secured on land that 
would not be capable of producing crops more 
dependent on immediately usable food supplies. 

Red clover is another example of a forage crop 
that possesses valuable characteristics. It can be 



4 FOB AGE CBOPS 

very generally grown, is rich in nutrients, pala- 
table, and capable of use as a green forage or 
as hay; it possesses an important advantage in 
being capable of deriving a part at least of the 
nitrogenous food necessary for its growth from the 
air, and for this reason is regarded as an improving 
rather than an exhausting crop. It supplements 
the corn crop in composition, as well as in its 
power of obtaining nitrogen. Thus, in the growing 
of corn and clover in rotation, better rations are 
obtained and the soil less quickly depleted, than if 
corn alone is grown. 

On the other hand, such crops as rye and wheat, 
while readily grown, are serviceable only for a 
short period as green forage or for soiling, and 
are not so generally useful in their dried state as 
corn or clover. Their usefulness is due chiefly 
to their time of growth and season of maturity, 
which permits of their use as green forage or pas- 
ture when such crops as corn and clover are not 
yet ready. 

The cowpea possesses the characteristics attrib- 
uted to the clover in food acquirements, but it is 
possible to grow it only in the hot season, and it 
therefore serves only as a late summer or fall food. 

Another point of very great importance, and 
one which should be observed in comparing the 
various forage crops, is the food -content in the 
green state. Succulence is of course very impor- 



SUCCULENT FOE AGE 5 

tant in soiling crops, but it cannot take the place 
of actual nutrition; therefore, in measuring the 
value of crops for soiling, those that produce the 
largest quantity of actual food per acre should be 
given the preference, other things being equal. In 
other words, the value of a forage crop is measured 
by the dry matter, or food -substance other than 
water, and not by the ton basis without regard to 
the percentage of dry matter. It has been shown, 
for example, that certain of the crops which have 
their origin in hot climates make enormous yields, 
as teosinte and Pearl millet, yet the actual nutri- 
ment produced by them in a short period is rela- 
tively much less than from corn or some other 
crops whose natural habitat is the temperate zone. 
In many cases, one ton of corn, when in a state 
suitable for use as green forage or soiling, will con- 
tain twice as much dry matter or digestible nutri- 
ents as two tons of these crops which grow much 
more luxuriantly and are apparently superior 
sources of food -supply. 

In comparing the values of different forage 
crops, the character of the nutritious materials of 
the dry matter contained in them should not be for- 
gotten, and the influence of these in the nourish- 
ment of the animal. It has been very clearly shown 
by nutrition investigations that nutrient sub- 
stances in feeds are of two general groups or classes : 
(1) Those containing a relatively large percentage 



6 FORAGE CROPS 

of protein, of which nitrogen is the base; (2) those 
containing a low percentage of protein, and, there- 
fore, nsually richer in carbohydrates. Corn is a 
representative of the second class, whereas clover, 
particularly in its green state, represents the first 
class. A judicious combination of these two groups 
of substances results in a more economical feeding 
of the animal than the use of either one or the 
other in too great proportion. In the growing of 
forage crops, therefore, both classes should be rep- 
resented. For this reason, the various crops are 
classified and discussed in groups: (1) The group 
including those that belong to the grass family; 

(2) those belonging to the legume or clover family; 

(3) root crops; (4) and finally a brief account of 
permanent meadows and pastures. All this is pre- 
ceded by a discussion as to their use in systems of 
crop -rotation, and how to combine those of each 
group in order that a continuous summer feeding 
for soiling purposes may be best accomplished. 

IMPORTANCE OF SUCCULENT FOODS FOR DAIRY COWS 

Aside from the mere question of food production, 
the interest in forage crops has increased because 
the results of investigations of the dairy business 
have shown that if the product of the cow is to be 
kept up to the full standard, the animal must be 
supplied with an abundance of succulent food 



SUCCULENT DAIRY FOODS 7 

throughout the enth-e year. Under old systems, 
when definite areas were devoted to pasturage and 
the entke supply of succulent food was from this 
source, animals were frequently poorly fed, because 
climatic conditions did not permit of a continuous 
and abundant growth of the various kinds of 
pasture. The crops were frequently lessened by 
droughts, extending over shorter or longer periods 
when the animals, not having supplementary food, 
were either insufficiently nourished or did not have 
food of the right kind. In other instances, late 
winter forage having been exhausted at the usual 
time, animals were turned out on pasture before it 
was abundant enough to supply the entire demands, 
or when the plants were so immature that, even 
with sufficient bulk, the necessary amount of actual 
nutriment was not obtained. Frequently, also, in 
certain regions where river or brook meadows serve 
as the entire source of pasture, summer floods inter- 
fere with the continuous supply of food, because the 
floods leave a deposit of mud and silt, and three 
or four days are required before the grass grows 
sufficiently to enable the meadow to be fully pas- 
tured again. Under these circumstances, animals 
frequently were not sufficiently nourished. Often 
heavy storms soak the ground so as to make 
the pastures wet and soggy, besides requiring con- 
siderable energy on the part of the animal to move 
about the fields, with consequent loss of product. 



8 FORAGE CROPS 

Pastures were too often the only source of succu- 
lent food; no provision was made for succulent 
winter food, and the less suitable dry foods were 
fed exclusively. Under all of these circumstances, 
where conditions were necessarily variable, the milk 
flow was naturally interfered with, and the actual 
profits from the dairy materially prevented. There- 
fore, the introduction of new crops, or the adoption 
of any practice which will result in providing for a 
continuous supply of food, must meet the approval 
of progressive dairymen. 

Aside from suggestions as to continuous supply 
of food by summer soiling, the growing of various 
forage crops must have a bearing on summer pas- 
ture, and on the necessity of supplementary feeds 
to meet the requirements when conditions are 
unfavorable, as well as to provide succulent foods 
for winter. To be sure, many farmers have it in 
their power to supply these supplementary feeds 
from the regular crops at certain seasons, — as, 
for example, when corn reaches a sufficient state 
of maturity to permit of its use, or when grass or 
clover from the mowing fields has reached the 
proper stage of maturity, — but ordinarily no pro- 
vision is made to meet the possible demands at 
such seasons. Many of the crops that serve an 
excellent purpose for soiling may be grown in 
small areas, and thus provide food when needed; 
and if not needed, the crop may be made into hay 



FORAGE IN DRr REGIONS 9 

for dry roughage in winter, and thus reduce the 
necessity for purchasing feeds. 



REGIONAL QUESTIONS 

The semi- arid regions of tlie West present 
peculiar conditions in relation to forage. In certain 
seasons, it is possible to secure good yields of the 
ordinary forage crops ; but large areas which w^ere 
formerly considered to be beyond the reach of 
profitable cropping are now productive, because 
of the improvements of methods and of the intro- 
duction of new plants. These lands have now a 
distinct crop -producing value, notwithstanding the 
shortage in rainfall. Advance in knowledge of the 
conditions may not make it possible to grow corn, 
but other well-established plants, that may be 
called "dry weather" plants, have been introduced, 
and are likely to be of greater service than those 
now regarded as better adapted for conditions 
of greater rainfall. Among these plants are the 
non- saccharine and saccharine sorghums, the first 
of which includes kafir corn and plants of that 
type, and the second the regular sugar-producing 
varieties. It seems desirable, in a work of this 
kind, that special mention should be made of these 
plants and their usefulness for these conditions, as 
their value has now been well established. 

In certain parts of the South, owing to the 



10 FOB AGE CHOPS 

character of the climate, it has not been possible 
successfully to grow the grasses which do well in 
the northern and central parts of the country. 
Timothy, orchard-grass, red-top and other grasses, 
which serve to very good purpose for pasturage and 
hay in the North and West, are not well adapted 
to these regions. Therefore, special crops, which 
may or may not be adapted to rotations, answer 
an excellent purpose in providing grass, where the 
production of live-stock and the maintenance of 
soil fertility are matters of special importance. In 
many of the southern states, varieties of grasses 
have been introduced that possess such peculiari- 
ties of growth as to enable them not only to sur- 
vive but to provide hay and pasture of an excel- 
lent quality, while at the same time protecting 
the soil from losses due to washing from heavy 
rains, so prevalent in the South. Bermuda grass 
is probably one of the most useful for the South ; 
its characteristics are discussed not so much in 
reference to its place among other forage crops in 
a rotation, as to its special usefulness in providing 
a satisfactory forage that is suitable for the con- 
ditions which exist there. 

In many of the colder regions, also, grasses 
whose value is established do not always survive 
the hard winters. These conditions have been 
met by the introduction of plants that, in a meas- 
ure, will take the place of those which are not to be 



GBASS FOB AGE 11 

depended on. Therefore, such kinds as have the 
requisite hardiness, although they possess unfavor- 
able characteristics (as, for example, Broynus in- 
ermis) , have been found to be most useful in these 
regions. 

PASTURES AND MEADOWS 

One other line of practice of very great impor- 
tance is the proper management and maintenance 
of grasses in meadows and pastures. Pastures will 
continue to be the main source of summer forage 
for far the greater number of farmers for a long 
time to come, although it is the exception, rather 
than the rule, that permanent pastures are regarded 
as equally important with other field crops. It does 
not seem to occur to the farmer that pastures, as 
well as other crops, must have food in order to 
furnish profitable results. As a rule, pastures are 
allowed to take care of themselves, and they be- 
come infested with weeds, brambles and unpala- 
table grasses, when by a little care the weeds may 
be kept out and sweet grasses maintained, and the 
yield largely increased. The necessity for growing 
many of the crops here discussed would in many 
cases be reduced if more attention were given to 
pastures ; and the cost to the farmer would be rela- 
tively much less than is generally supposed. The 
expense of the labor involved in pastures is a com- 
paratively small item. They require, mainly, that 



12 FORAGE CROPS 

the land shall be top-dressed occasionally with lime 
and commercial fertilizer or manure, that wet places 
be suitably drained, that fresh seeding be made as 
occasion demands and that care be exercised in 
grazing them. With increased supplies of concen- 
trated plant-food, and knowledge concerning their 
adaptability and usefulness in feeding plants, we 
can now give suggestions which cannot fail to be of 
great service to the farmer, not only in reducing the 
expense of forage, but increasing the value of lands. 
The same is true, in a degree, as to the main- 
tenance of mowing meadows. Much labor would 
be saved, and the period of profitable cropping 
extended, if proper care were taken in seeding down 
the meadows and judicious treatment were given 
them afterward. Hay is one of the most valuable 
crops, taken all in all; yet less care is expended 
in the growing of this crop than in any of the 
cultivated crops. It is regarded largely as a scav- 
enger crop, which gathers up that which other 
crops have not used; but rather it should be re- 
garded as a crop that responds to proper treat- 
ment and that can utilize profitably direct applica- 
tions of plant -food. 



CHAPTER II 

FORAGE CROPS FOR HAY AND FOR IMPROVING 

THE LAND 

The principles that underlie the successful 
growth of forage crops apply quite as well whether 
the crops are used for dry forage or for soiling, 
although the number and kind of crops used for the 
two purposes are not necessarily the same. The 
advantage of a larger use of land for hay crops 
is not determined by the value of the hay crop 
itself. In many cases, the indirect value in soil 
improvement, which is a result of the frequent 
introduction into rotations of hay crops (both of 
grasses and legumes), is quite as great as the 
direct value of the forage. The more complete 
covering of the land with vegetation prevents 
losses that may occur when the fields are continu- 
ously cropped with grain, without intermediate 
cover-crops, or only infrequently cropped with hay, 
besides adding vegetable matter, the only natural 
source of humus. This humus is a result of the 
decay of the vegetable matter introduced by the 
roots and stubble; the humus is especially valu- 
able when it comes from the frequent introduction 
of leguminous crops, thereby increasing the con- 

(13) 



14 FORAGE CHOPS 

tent of the valuable element nitrogen. The prin- 
cipal reasons for the rotation of crops are based on 
these facts. The purpose of a rotation is to pro- 
long the period during which profitable grain and 
other crops may be produced with the natural 
supplies of plant -food. 

Under present conditions in this country, the 
area that is devoted to the growing of hay is rela- 
tively large, although the average yield per acre is 
comparatively small. It is probable that the main- 
tenance of fertility by means of rotations is not so 
greatly influenced by the growth of leguminous hay 
crops as would be the case if, aside from their 
value as forage, there were a better understanding 
of their usefulness in soil improvement. The low 
average yield per acre of hay may be ascribed to 
several causes, chief among which are: 

1. Too extensive systems of practice, which do 
not provide for sufficient available plant-food. 

2. Lack of general information concerning the 
habits of growth, usefulness and composition of 
many grasses and legumes, which are well adapted 
to special conditions, including lack of knowledge 
of the best combinations of these plants. 

3. Defective systems of rotation, which do not 
provide for a proper succession of cereals and le- 
gumes, or which leave the land bare for long periods. 

4. Too little care in the preparing and manuring 
of the land for seeding. 



LOW PBODVCTION OF HAY 15 

5. Careless and imperfect methods of seeding. 

In regions where grain farming is practiced, and 
the grain sold, little attention is given to the hay 
crop ; it is not a money crop in the same sense as 
corn, oats or wheat. If enough hay is procured to 
meet the needs of the working stock, no special 
efforts are made to secure thick and uniform 
stands, and thus the possibilities of the land are 
not realized, and the value of the crop, as a soil 
renovator, is not obtained. The small quantity of 
manure that is made is used on corn or wheat, and 
the grass or clover is seeded with the wheat, rye 
or oats. By these methods the added fertility in 
the manure has been largely used by the preceding 
crop of corn, or by the wheat or other grain crops, 
and only in exceptional cases, especially in the 
East and South, is a good catch secured, and, con- 
sequently, the yield is not large and it is often of 
poor quality. When dairying or stock -growing is 
combined with grain -farming, more attention is 
naturally given to hay, although even then the 
corn crop, which is regarded as the forage crop 
par excellence, is usually given first consideration. 

Hay standards 

The grass most generally grown for hay is 
timothy, which is a most excellent plant for the 
purpose, particularly from the standpoint of sala- 



16 FORAGE CHOPS 

bleness, as the various grades fixed by hay associ- 
ations are based on this variety as a standard. 
Any admixtures of other grasses or clovers reduce 
the value in proportion to the quantity of timothy 
present. It is probable that for a long time to 
come timothy hay will remain the standard for 
market grades. Notwithstanding these facts, there 
are a number of other plants which, because of 
their adaptability to peculiar conditions, their 
larger yields, and their excellent quality for feeding, 
must sooner or later be recognized. Among these 
are orchard -grass, red -top, Kentucky blue -grass, 
Italian rye -grass, and others, some of which are 
discussed in some detail in other parts of this 
volume. The common recognition of the value 
of mixtures would result, in many instances, in 
largely increasing the possible yield from a defi- 
nite area, because mixtures of grasses that have 
different characteristics meet and average up the 
inequalities in seasons, soils and other conditions. 
The same is true of the legumes : many are suit- 
able for mixtures, and they improve the feeding 
value of the hay at the same time. 

Until recently, red clover has been the only 
member of the legume family extensively used for 
forage. It is well adapted to rotation- cropping, 
can be grown on most soils, and is a most excel- 
lent forage for all kinds of farm stock, but it can- 
not fulfil all requirements. Alsike clover, mam- 



ROTATION PRACTICE 17 

moth clover, cowpea, soybean, and spring and 
winter vetch are legumes that possess similar 
qualities from the feeding standpoint, and which, 
because of their habits of growth, supplement the 
red clover in improving rotations, while at the 
same time they permit a much larger production 
of forage from a unit of land. Alfalfa also belongs 
to this group, and is in many respects superior to 
any of them; but because it grows more rapidly 
and is perennial in its habits, it is not so well 
suited for mixtures or for rotations. 

Improvement of rotations 

In this country, extensive or large- area systems 
of farming are more generally adopted than inten- 
sive systems, and the crops are usually the cereals, 
as maize, oats, wheat and barley. These crops 
must depend on soil sources almost exclusively for 
their food supply, as the manures are made from 
a limited number of animals, and those secured in 
purchased supplies are not universally used. 

A rotation very generally adopted in the East 
and central West is corn, oats, wheat, hay, clover, 
or clover and timothy mixed. This is not, in all 
cases, a better rotation than any other, but it 
allows the growing of a larger proportion of grain 
crops. One method in such a rotation is to apply 
the manure on the sod for corn, which is harvested 

B 



18 FORAGE CROPS 

in the early fall and the land left bare of vegeta- 
tion until spring, when it is seeded with oats with- 
out further manuring. After the oats are harvested 
the land either grows weeds, which in this case are 
of some value, or is plowed and allowed to lie bare 
until September or October, when it is seeded with 
wheat. An even less rational method, from the 
standpoint of economical use of the manure, be- 
cause it results in loss of fertility elements, is to 
apply manure to the wheat instead of the corn. 
By this system, but one, or at most two hay crops 
(if the second crop is harvested) are taken, and 
the land has but one year of partial rest in four; 
besides, there are two periods in the rotation when 
the land is bare, and suffers loss by leaching, 
blowing or washing, and possible lowering of "con- 
dition" due to the destruction of organisms. 

The above rotation is inexpensive of labor, and 
may prove profitable for grain-growing for a long 
time, on lands originally very fertile; but the fer- 
tility may be improved by the introduction of 
cover- crops and catch -crops, which will prevent 
possible losses of constituents, but which need not 
reduce the number of grain crops, and besides add 
one or more crops of hay. To accomplish this, the 
first crop (corn) may be seeded with the rye or 
wheat before, or immediately after, it is harvested. 
The rye will absorb and retain the nitrates formed 
in late summer and not used by the corn, and 



20 FOB AGE CROPS 

also bind the soil and prevent the washing and 
blowing away of the finer particles in winter and 
spring, thus keeping the land in better condition 
for the oats crop, besides accumulating organic 
matter. 

If either clover or the Essex rape is seeded 
with the oats, the land does not lie bare and ex- 
posed to the direct rays of the sun through the hot 
season, but is shaded with plants, which keep it 
cooler, and which are useful for pasture until it is 
time to prepare for wheat. The wheat crop is 
usually harvested early in July; if immediately 
afterward the land is thoroughly disked, and seeded 
with cowpeas, the land will again be covered dur- 
ing the hot months of July and August, and this 
will prevent, in large part, the possible destruction 
of bacteria, and at the same time make a crop of 
hay, which, under ordinary conditions of fertility, 
should yield from one to two tons per acre, and be 
harvested in time for seeding to timothy and clover. 
This better preparatory treatment of the land will 
encourage a better germination and more rapid 
growth of the crop in the fall . The crop will reach 
maturity at the usual time for hay- making, and 
since the object sought is the hay crop, and the 
land is entirely given up to this object, it is likely 
to make a better catch and be freer from weeds 
than if seeded with a grain crop. This method has 
proved to be entirely feasible in practice. With 



IMPEOV^ING THE HAT CROP 21 

but slight expense for labor and seed it makes pos- 
sible a larger yield of forage in the same period 
and at the same time increases rather than reduces 
fertility. 

When oats is not a profitable grain crop, the 
rotation may be changed so as to have two crops 
of maize in succession, a method which has been 
practiced with great success, particularly in the 
eastern parts of New York and Pennsylvania, and 
in New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland and pa-rts of 
Virginia. This system requires that crimson clover 
be seeded in the corn at the last cultivation, which 
will make a crop of hay by the middle or latter 
part of May, or in time to plant corn again, which 
crop may be removed in time to seed to wheat. 
After harvesting the wheat, the land may be disk- 
harrowed and seeded with cowpeas or soybeans, 
which may be made into hay, and the land then 
seeded to clover and timothy as in the first 
example. 

The value of the frequent introduction of cow- 
peas and soybeans, which not only keep the land 
occupied, but add to the forage capacity of the 
farm, can hardly be overestimated, as the land 
increases in productive value by the added crops 
of hay, and it is improved both because of the con- 
tinuous occupation with crops, and the added 
nitrogen derived from the air; all this aids in the 
growth of cereals, and results in a larger pro- 



22 FOB AGE CROPS 

duction of manure, due to feeding the extra hay. 
In these improved rotations, the same number of 
grain crops are secured, besides a crop of hay in 
the first year and two crops in the second year. 

When wheat and corn are the main crops, as in 
Ohio, Illinois, Indiana and Iowa, the rotation may 
be imjjroved, also, by seeding cowpeas or soy- 
beans after the wheat is removed. After the hay 
is harvested, rye may be seeded, which covers the 
land in winter; it may be plowed down as a green 
crop for corn, and wheat be seeded after the corn. 
Hopkins, of the Illinois Experiment Station, sug- 
gests a four -year rotation of corn, wheat, corn and 
clover, including the cowpea or soybean as a catch- 
crop for hay, the legumes to be fed as hay or pas- 
ture, and the manure returned to the land. Or a 
five-year rotation may be used in which timothy is 
seeded with clover, and the land pastured the fifth 
year. These rota,tions greatly increase the possi- 
bilities of the land for hay-growing, while at the 
same time they prevent rapid exhaustion. These 
suggestions may undoubtedly be adopted with profit 
throughout the other corn -growing and wheat- 
growing states of the central Mississippi valley. 

In the southern states, there has been a short- 
age of hay crops, because the tendency has been 
to grow cotton and tobacco continuously, or with 
only infrequent rotation when corn and cotton are 
raised. The advantages of the introduction of the 



IMPROVED HAT ROTATIONS 23 

cowpea, soybeai}, vetch and clover in a rotation, 
and used as hay, are now recognized in part, and 
wherever used they result in largely increasing 
the amount of feed, without decreasing the total 
yield of corn, cotton or tobacco. 

An improved rotation, recommended by the 
Alabama Station, is (first year) corn with cow- 
jieas planted between the corn rows in May or 
June; second year, fall-sown oats or wheat, fol- 
lowed by cowpeas in June; third year, cotton. 
The cowpeas, after the crop of small grains is 
removed, are usually cut for hay, but may be 
picked for seed, or pastured, or plowed under in 
January or February. 

In California, and a number of the north- 
western states, continuous cropping has been 
generally practiced, although the desirability of 
rotation is becoming apparent, especially in con- 
nection with sugar-beet and wheat-growing. 

The main point, in all rotations, from the 
standpoint of forage, is so to adjust the rotations 
as to keep the land occupied, without sacrificing 
in any great degree the number of cereal or root- 
crops that may be grown. 

Land and seeding 

Another important consideration which is 
beginning to receive the attention that the condi- 



24 FOB AGE CHOPS 

tions warrant, is the complex question of adapta- 
tion of soil, and its preparation, for different 
kinds of hay crops ; for while many of the grasses 
and legumes may be grown successfully on a 
wide variety of soils, they are peculiarly adapted 
to certain specific conditions. Red clover, for 
example, will grow well on lands adapted to 
corn. Alsike clover will succeed on those that 
are colder and more compact and not so suitable 
for the red clover. Timothy is adapted to lands 
rich in humus, and to those which, because of 
their higher content of clay, are colder than those 
most suitable for clover. Therefore, mixtures of 
timothy, red clover and alsike are much safer 
than either one alone, under general conditions, 
because if the conditions are unfavorable for one 
kind they may be favorable for another. 

In seeding any of these crops, the land should 
always be well prepared, which means not only 
that it shall be plowed and harrowed, but that 
it shall be worked frequently, so as to compact 
the soil and leave only the surface fine and mel- 
low — the finer and mellower the better, except 
for soils that contain a high content of fine silt, 
in which case it is better not to make the surface 
too fine, else the land is likely to puddle and to 
become so hard as to prevent full germination 
and to retard growth. Seeding should be cnre- 
fully performed. As a rule, too little seed is 



LAND AND UABVU STING FOB EAT 25 

used. However, when large quantities are applied, 
the importance of good preparation and fertiliza- 
tion is more imperative, because with a more 
complete occupation of the land, there is a 
greater call for plant-food and moisture. The 
quantities of seed to be sown will vary with the 
kind and the mixtures of seed and manures used, 
matters which are fully discussed in other chapters. 

Harvesting and curing 

Another matter of great consequence in the 
handling of forage crops, especially if the purpose 
is to feed them on the farm, is the time of cut- 
ting. The largest quantity of digestible matter 
usually is contained in the crop when it is in 
blossom, although it does not follow that the 
largest total yield per acre will be secured if 
cut at that time. In the harvesting of grasses 
for hay, whether they shall be cut at their best 
stage for feed depends on whether the purpose 
is to feed on the farm, or to sell, the markets 
demanding a more mature forage than is best 
for the purpose of feeding. The difficulties of 
harvesting are greater when hay is cut for home 
use than for the market, as, in the earlier stages 
of growth, there is a larger proportion of water 
in the plant, which requires more handling than 
when nearer ripe. 



26 FORAGE CROPS 

Clover should be cut in the morning, tedded 
thoroughly, and if possible raked into windrows 
the afternoon of the same day. If the day 
following is clear, the windrows may be thrown 
open and tedded in the morning early, then raked 
together and put in small cocks and allowed to 
stand over night; the following day they may 
be opened to the air, and dried further, and the 
crop housed. By this method, there is little dan- 
ger of loss of leaves by handling, or of deteriora- 
tion in quality, because of being exposed to sun 
and dew. 

The hay made from grasses, when cut at the 
proper time, and well cured, is especially suitable 
for horses and cattle, and may be used as the 
main source of roughage for these animals. For 
dairy cows, fattening stock, sheep, swine and 
young stock of all kinds, the clovers or other 
legumes are much better adapted for growth and 
development than the grasses, as they contain a 
higher content of protein and mineral matter, in 
digestible forms. 

A judicious introduction of the different crops 
into the various rotations, as outlined, will not 
only increase the possibilities for hay -growing, 
but will be an important factor in maintaining 
the fertility of soils, now so carelessly and 
wastefully managed. 



CHAPTER III 

FORAGE CROPS FOR SOILING 

The principles of feeding are the same whetiier 
animals are fed dried or succulent foods. That is, 
the relative values of the actual digestible nutri- 
ents are not changed, nor are the functions of the 
nutrients different in the one case from the other; 
yet, in comparisons that have been made of the 
feeding- value of nutrients contained in dry-forage 
rations with those in green and succulent forage, it 
has been found that a unit of digestible food of 
the same kind in the succulent ration has a greater 
efficiency than a unit of the same kind in the dry 
ration. This is thought to be due to the fact that 
a slightly greater expenditure of the total energy 
contained in the food is required in the utilization 
of a unit of food than of its equivalent in dry 
succulent food, with a corresponding increase in 
the net energy. This fact has a bearing on the ques- 
tion of soiling, because it enables the feeder to 
utilize more completely the nutrients that are raised 
on his farm. The same facts, however, apply in 
pasturing as well as in soiling, although, in the 
case of pasturing, animals do not always have at 
their command the ration in its best or most succu- 

(27) 



28 FORAGE CROPS 

lent form, for many times it is partially dried and 
not very palatable. That is, it is not possible, in 
pasturing, always to control the conditions in such 
a way as to secure reasonable uniformity in the 
proportion of contained water, or in the kind and 
Quality of the nutrients in the food. 

BALANCED RATIONS 

Another consideration in feeding, important 
from the physiological standpoint, is the proper 
relation of the kinds of nutrients to each other in 
any given food; from the economical point of view, 
this principle cannot always be applied in soiling 
systems, although it should always be considered. 

It has been very clearly demonstrated that for 
the best results in stock -feeding, there should be 
a reasonably definite ratio between the digestible 
nitrogenous and the digestible non- nitrogenous 
nutrients. An excess of the nitrogenous nutrients 
usually causes a greater increase in the cost of the 
ration when feeds are purchased than when the 
carbohydrates, or non -nitrogenous nutrients, are 
in excess. In the case of crops suitable for soiling 
purposes, it is often quite as economical, or even 
more economical, to feed a ration richer than the 
standard in its content of digestible nitrogenous 
nutrients than to attempt to widen the ration by 
the use of carbohydrate feeds. This is due to the 



SILAGE RATIONS 29 

fact that many of the crops that are suitable for 
soiling belong to the legume family, which are 
relatively richer in nitrogenous substance than the 
cereals; and, because these legumes do not need 
nitrogenous manuring, they may be more cheaply 
raised than others. It frequently happens, also, 
that many of the cereal crops, when in a fit con- 
dition for soiling, are more highly nitrogenous 
than when approaching maturity; and a larger 
use of this nitrogenous food would probably be 
quite as economical as if smaller quantities were 
used and carbohydrates purchased. Hence, in 
soiling systems, the observation of those laws 
which are frequently very potent in regulating 
the cost of nutrients per unit of product when 
dried foods are exclusively used, may be in part 
ignored. 

A soiling system properly conducted requires a 
large number of crops, varying widely in their 
proportion of nitrogenous and non- nitrogenous 
nutrients. The land must be kept occupied ; and a 
proper and self-sustaining rotation usually includes 
leguminous plants in order to maintain or increase 
the productiveness of the farm. If the feeder 
thinks that with every change of forage he would 
be required to change his feed ration, he might be 
deterred from adopting the system; but, as has 
already been pointed out, this change would not 
necessarily be required. 



30 FORAGE CROPS 

SOILING VERSUS PASTURING 

The chief advantages and disadvantages of 
soiling, as compared with pasturing, have been 
pointed out by many writers, and special points 
are alluded to in succeeding chapters ; but it may 
be well to consider the question briefly at this 
time, as the subject is not well understood, and 
its importance is not appreciated as it should be. 

Among the advantages of the soiling system, 
the following are important: 

1. A larger quantity of food may be secured from 
the same land under soiling systems than under 
pasturage. It has been shown by many careful 
experiments that one acre of land in soiling crops 
will maintain from two to four cows per acre dur- 
ing the growing season, or practically from May 1 
to November 1 in the latitude of Pennsylvania. 

2. The food may be made more uniform in 
quantity and in quality when cut and carried to 
the animals, and fed in the barn or paddock, than 
when the animals are allowed to select their own. 
Under exclusive pasturage systems animals are 
frequently unable to obtain a full supply; thus 
their food fluctuates both in quantity and quality, 
and the varying conditions do not permit of the 
full and constant flow of milk. Animals cannot be 
kept to their full capacity throughout the year 
unless they are uniformly and abundantly supplied 
with food. 



AD VANTA GES A^'^D DISAD VAJVTA GES 31 

3. Practically all the food can be made avail- 
able for use, while systems of pasturing prevent 
the entire use of any crop, a large part of it being 
wasted by the tramping of the animals. 

4. The expense of fencing is saved, and the 
land is more completely utilized. The only fences 
required on farms where soiling systems are fol- 
lowed are those around the exercising grounds. 
A five -acre exercising lot is ample for fifty to 
seventy -five head of cattle. 

5. In the production of sanitary milk (that is, 
clean milk, free from taints, odors and flavors), 
the soiling system is much superior to pasturing, 
as the source of supply of food and water may be 
controlled. Under the soiling system, there is no 
necessity that milk at certain seasons taste grassy 
or garlicky or bitter, due to the consumption of 
various weeds, which are likely to be present even 
in the best of pastures. Furthermore, the animals 
do not have access to stagnant pools of water, 
which frequently contribute undesirable character- 
istics to the milk. 

The disadvantages of the soiling system are 
chiefly two: 

1. The greater expenditure for labor and 
expense in the preparation of soil, seeding and 
fertilizing in providing for the crop, and in cutting 
and carrying the food to the animals. In pastur- 
ing, the minimum of labor is required. 



32 FOB AGE CHOPS 

2. In wet spells, it is frequently difficult to 
harvest and cart the food to the animal, without 
injury to the land, and without reducing the 
palatability of the forage, although this also 
applies in part to pasturing. 

COST OF NUTRIENTS IN SOILING CROPS 

It is difficult to establish definite relations 
between the cost of food in soiling and in pasture, 
owing to the wide variety of conditions that occur. 
In the first place, in many soiling systems it is 
possible to utilize catch-crops (those grown between 
times, or incidental to other crops) at relatively little 
cost or to very great advantage. In other cases, 
in order that the continuity of supply of food may 
not be broken in complete soiling systems, it may 
be necessary to expend relatively large amounts 
for fertilizers, manures and seeds. On the other 
hand, in the case of the pasturing in many of the 
rougher sections of the country, land can be uti- 
lized that could not be profitably tilled, thus ena- 
bling the growing of suitable crops by the one 
system which would not be possible by the other. 
If land is expensive, and the markets for dairy 
products are good, the cost of nutrients per animal 
is relatively much less with soiling than with pas- 
turage, largely because of the decrease in the 
capital necessary to provide the land. 



SOILING IJYCBUASES CAPACITY OF FABM 33 

A farmer having a one -hundred -acre farm 
could provide, under the soiling system, summer 
and winter roughage for fifty to seventy- five head 
of cattle. Under the pasturing system he would 
not have a sufficient area to provide more than 
summer pasture, as each animal would require 
about two acres; thus he would not be able to 
provide any forage for winter use. In other words, 
the soiling system virtually increases the efficiency 
of areas available for dairying from four to six 
times. 

Under good systems of pasturage, it would 
require at least 100 acres to supply the pasture 
necessary for fifty cows, whereas by the soiling 
system 100 acres would be capable of providing 
food for 300 cows for the same period. All of the 
large dairies producing sanitary milk for the best 
city trade, and keeping from 50 to 500 cows, prac- 
tice soiling and find it much more economical than 
pasturing; in fact, it would be practically impos- 
sible, in many instances, to conduct the business 
if pasture were the only source of summer succu- 
lent food. 

EXPERIMENTS TO DETERIMINE THE COST OF NUTRIENTS 

In experiments at the New Jersey Station on 
the yield and cost of nutrients in soiling systems, 
it was shown that, while both yield and cost varied 



34 FORAGE CROPS 

with the season and kmd of crop, nevertheless 
the cost of dry matter in the various crops, not 
including the labor required to bring the food to 
the barn, averaged about $6.50 per ton, while the 
feeding -value of the dry matter was nearly as 
great on the average as that in fine feeds, which 
averaged over $20 per ton; and furthermore, that 
the yield per acre of dry matter ranged from three 
to four and one -half tons. 

In these experiments the land was used, in many 
cases, for three crops, and in others for two; or, 
in other words, the soil was constantly occupied 
with growing crops. It is more than likely that 
the expense of growing these crops would be much 
greater in the East and South than in the richer 
lands of the Central West, because, in addition to 
the manures, it is usually necessary to apply com- 
mercial fertilizers in order to secure maximum 
crops. 

ROTATION SYSTEMS 

As already indicated, in soiling systems it is 
necessary, in order that the largest returns may 
be obtained and that a continuous supply of forage 
may be provided, to adopt systems of rotation 
that will result in the largest yield of food per 
acre. It is impossible to give rotations that are 
likely to be most useful for all conditions, as cli- 
mate, season, and adaptability of crop, vary widely 



SOILING ROTATION 35 

in different localities ; but in order to give an idea 
of how rotations work out, the record of one year's 
soiling crops at the New Jersey Experiment Sta- 
tion is here presented: 

A Rotation of Soiling Crops Which Supplied Fifty Animals 

Six Months 

T^. , Seed used Date of Period of cutting Yield, 

(bushels) seeding and feeding tons 

Rye, 2 acres 4 Sept. 27 May 1-7 9.4 

Rye, 2 acres 4 ....Oct.3 May 7-19 19.2 

Alfalfa, 1 acre, first cutting r^ May 14 May 19-25 11.1 

Wheat, 2 acres 4 Sept. 26 May 25-June 1 10.4 

Crimson clover, 6 acres. . . 1^^ , ...July 16 June 1-21 42.8 

Mixed grasses, 1 acre June 21-26 8.3 

Oats-and-peas, 2 acres. , -| o >..April2 June 26-July 4 12.4 

Oats-and-peas, 2 acres. . -| „ V.. April 11 July 4-9 8.2 

Alfalfa, second cutting July 9-11 2.1 

Oats-and-peas, 5 acres. . | ^!jw | . .April 19 July 11-22 16.4 

Southern white corn, 

2 acres }^....May2 July 22-Aug. 3. . .. 17.7 

Barnyard millet, 2 acres.. l%....June 19 Aug. 3-19 23.2 

Soybeans, 1 acre 2 June 1 Aug. 19-25 8.8 

Cowpeas, 1 acre 2 June 10 Aug. 25-Sept. 1 . . . 10.5 

Cowpeas-and-kafir corn. / 2 \ j^j^ ^^ g^^^ j_^g 2^^ 

iL 3iCI*6S ..•■••••.•••••• ^ Jl J 

Pearl millet. 2 acres M . . . . July 11 Sept. 16-Oct. 1 . . . . 20.2 

Cowpeas, 1 acre \]4 July 24 Oct. 1-5 8.0 

Mixed grasses, 5 acres 

(partly dried) Oct. 5-27 20.0 

Barley, 2 acres 3>^....Sept. 2 Oct. 27-Nov. 1.... 5.2 

Total 278.3 

The above crops supplied sufficient green for- 
age for an equivalent of fifty full-grown animals 
from May 1 to November 1, fine feeds being used 
in addition as the animals seemed to require them. 
It will be observed that the average quantity of 
food consumed daily by each animal was 60.4 



36 FORAGE CROPS 

pounds. The number of acres was twenty -four, ten 
of which were used exclusively for forage crops, 
while the other fourteen were used only part of 
the season. The records for several years at this 
Station show that three and one -fourth cows may 
be kept on an acre for six months of the growing 
season. 

Other combinations of crops, which may be 
applicable in other localities, are indicated in the 
following table: 

Annual Yield of Rotating Soiling Crops Per Acre 

' Appi'oxi m ate ■ 

No. of Crops in Time of Time of Yield per 

acre one-year rotation seeding cutting acre— tons 

TRye and crimson clover September May 1-10 8.05 

1-^ Oats-and-peas May 10 July 1-10 7.G0 

[Soybeans July 10 Sept. 1-10 9.00 



Total 24.65 

r Wheat fodder September May 10-20 7.00 

2^ Cowpeas May 20 July 10-20 8.20 

[Japanese millet July 20 Sept. 10-20 7.00 

Total 22.20 

fOats-and-peas April 1 June 10-20 7.34 

2,1 Japanese millet June 20 Aug. 1-10 8.73 

[Barley-and-peas Aug. 10 Oct. 10-20 6.03 

Total 22.10 

{Oats-and-peas April 10 June 1-10 6.80 

Cowpeas June 10 Aug. 10-20 8. 20 

Barley-and-peas Aug. 20 Oct. 20-30 6.30 

Total 21.30 

r Rye September ..... May 1-7 9.60 

5< Cowpeas June 10 Aug. 25-Sept. 1 — 10.50 

[Barley Sept. 2 Oct. 27-Nov. 1.... 2.60 

Total 22.70 



SOILING BOTATIONS 37 

Annual Yield of Kotating Soiling Crops per Acre- Continued 

No. of Crops in l^i^^ol^^'^'^'-'^S^^^of 

acre one-year rotation seeding ^^tln^/ aSe-t?n^^ 

P J ^^^: October May 7-19. ... Q fiO 

6<^ Soybeans June 10 AuJ 19-'^5 8«n 

^^^''^^ Sept. 2 Octr27-Nov:Y.'::: 2 60 



Total 



7 rCrimson clover July May 20-June 1 . . . . 8.00 

^'"^''^ June 1 July 20-Aug. 1.. 



21.00 

8.00 
9.56 



Total 



17.56 



8 r Mixed grasses September June 20-30. .. . 7 00 

'-^"'■" June 20 Aug. 20-Sept. I..'.' 12."24 



Total 



19.24 

,, ^^ . 8.60 

May 27 July 20-29 11.80 



9|r??;r'^"'^^*'^ ^"P^-10 May 10-19 8 60 

•-^^"^ May 27 Julv 20-M 



Total 



20.40 



lo/S^'^-; • • •.•• : August May 1-10 8 "lO 

, Pearl millet May 18 Aug. 8-15. i! ...::; ISjS 



Total 



23.60 



^^Icowpeas ""*''' t^^''^^' June 26-July 4. ... 10.20 

L i^owpeas Aug. 1 Sept. 16-22 8.00 

^^^^^ • n^ 



,rOats-and-peas April 21 June 29-July 6. . .. 10 

y^^^'^^^o^rx July 10 Sept. 22-.30:..:. 1 



12k t^,.V. ^—^ Apni ^i .June LJy-JuIy 6 10 20 

^Pt. 22-.30 11.00 

^^'^' ^T^ 

13|p''l;:^'''^PTr^ ^'''''^2 June 16-23 6 ''O 

I Cowpeas-and-kafir corn July 10 Sept. 1-16......... 12."20 



Total 



18.40 

Alfalfa — First year, two cuttings. 



^^icxiLii-rirst year, two cuttings o «^ 

iM t f's'^^S?^'*'^'^ ^'"'•''■'^ ^^^'^ cuttings !!.■;.'."!!;;::::;;■■■' ^^o"! 

A falfa-Third year, five cuttings fn'cn 

Alfalfa-Fourth year, four cuttings .".*.*.".'."*.'.'.'.'.".""!!! .'.'.' 21.70 

In these schemes, when one crop is removed 
another is pnt in immediately. As the time of 



38 FOB AGE CBOPS 

seeding, as well as time of harvesting, varies 
greatly, the dates are of course only approximate. 

In order that the land may be covered in winter, 
rye or wheat is seeded when the last crop is 
removed. To accomplish this in the case of Nos. 
4, 5 and 6, rye is seeded with the barley or barley- 
and-peas, and it will usually grow sufficiently, 
after the forage is removed, to make a good cover 
for the winter. 

It will be observed that in the rotations in the 
latter table, alfalfa is not included, although a 
small area was used in the rotation indicated in 
the previous table. Where it is possible to grow 
alfalfa, it would be quite unnecessary to use so 
large a number of crops. In fact, rye, crimson 
clover, alfalfa and corn would serve to provide 
practically a continuous supply of food, as the 
alfalfa will be ready for harvesting usually the 
fourth week in May, and the cuttmg can be so 
arranged afterward as practically to provide a 
continuous supply of forage until the middle of 
September. Alfalfa is one of the cheapest and most 
satisfactory crops that can be grown for soiling. 

THE ROTATIONS MUST BE CAREFULLY PLANNED 

It will be observed from a study of the tables 
of rotations that, in order to provide for a con- 
tinuous supply of forage crops, careful plans must 



POINTS IN ROTATIONS 39 

be made beforehand, or a period will occur when 
there is a lack of sufficient food. In the central 
states, the period likely to be most difficult to fill 
is the latter part of July and early August, espe- 
cially should the season be so dry as to prevent max- 
imum growth. To avoid interruptions, it is neces- 
sary, therefore, to plant a larger area and plan for 
a greater quantity of food than would be requisite if 
normal conditions prevailed. It is also necessary, 
if the land is to be fully occupied and maximum 
yields secured, that care be taken to follow the 
schedule of seeding and harvesting very closely. 
A difference of two or three days in the time of 
seeding, especially in spring, will very often make 
a difference of ten days in the time of harvesting. 
This is particularly true in the case of oats and 
peas. 

The period required for growing the crop to the 
proper stage, as well as the period during which 
crops may be useful for forage, will also vary to 
some extent; but if harvesting is begun early 
enough, as pointed out in the discussion of indi- 
vidual crops, the period of usefulness will range 
from six days to two weeks. For example, rye 
seeded at different times will in some seasons pro- 
vide excellent forage for fully two weeks, while in 
certain other seasons, especially if the early season 
is dry and hot, profitable feeding cannot be con- 
tinued for more than a week or ten days. The 



40 FORAGE CROPS 

period of successful feeding will also depend on 
the kind of crop. Corn may be fed for a much 
longer period than any other of the regular forage 
crops, while millet is not useful ordinarily for more 
than six days. All of these factors must be taken 
into consideration in making plans for a season, in 
order that the forage will be in the best condition 
for soiling, and that the land may be fully utilized 
for crops. 

Many farmers using green forage crops for the 
first time make the mistake of waiting until the 
plant is too far matured before beginning its use. 
The result is that the food is not palatable, diges- 
tibility is reduced, and the milk flow is decreased, 
due not to the system of soiling, but to a lack of 
observation of the essential rules. 

PLANT -POOD MUST BE PROVmED 

Another point of considerable importance, and 
which is often overlooked, is the fact that in such 
intensive practice there is a greater demand for 
available food than when a period of rest occurs 
between the different crops. Therefore, it is essen- 
tial not only that very careful cultivation shall be 
practiced, but that the land shall be well supplied 
with plant -food. In any system of rotation, it is 
desirable, also, that one crop each year shall be a 
leguminous crop, and also that the land shall 



MAINTAINING FERTILITY 41 

receive a dressing of manure once a year. In addi- 
tion to this, the summer crops especially should be 
well supplied with phosphoric acid and potash. 

At the New Jersey Station, nine acres were 
devoted to the growing of soiling crops, during a 
period of nine years, crops succeeding each other 
immediately, and the soil, instead of becoming 
less fertile,, increased in productiveness, notwith- 
standing the continuous drain on the land and actual 
removal of large quantities of fertility constituents. 
This was undoubtedly due to extra cultivation, to 
manure applied once each year, to commercial 
fertilizers applied with the other crops, and to the 
further fact that the land was covered with some 
crop in winter. This practice of cover -cropping 
not only provided abundance of food, but prevented 
losses of constituents, as the land was not left bare 
in fall and winter. 

PREPARATION OF LAND 

In the growing of soiling crops under intensive 
systems, it is better, as a rule, to plow but once a 
year, preferably in spring. In the preparation of 
land for the other crops, it is advisable to use a 
cutaway harrow, thoroughly pulverizing the soil 
at a depth of three to four inches. The advantages 
of this method are that the cultivation conserves 
moisture should the weather be dry; while the 



42 FOE AGE CROPS 

plowing causes too great loss of it, since it breaks 
the capillary connection with the lower layers at a 
too great depth from the surface. A dried -out 
plowed surface, not having proper connection with 
the lower layers, does not contain sufficient mois- 
ture to cause the rapid germination of seed and to 
provide what is necessary for immediate and con- 
tinuous growth. 

COVER -CROPS 

To keep the land constantly occupied with 
growing plants is particularly important, both in 
the hot summer months and in fall and spring. 
The covering of the land in summer prevents the 
temperature from rising so high as to destroy the 
organisms in the soil, while the covering in fall 
and spring prevents the mechanical losses that 
occur from wind and rain, and by the carrying 
away of food in the soil -water. Owing to the fact 
that certain crops, as, for example, barley or late- 
seeded oats, are harvested too late to permit of 
seeding other cover -crops, it has been found prac- 
ticable to seed either rye or wheat with the barley 
or oats; and the rye, if the nurse crop is removed 
by the latter part of October, will usually make 
growth enough in the central states to prevent 
the losses referred to, and to be used in spring 
for green manure or for forage, as may be most 
convenient. 



ECONOMY IN FEEDING 43 

FORAGE -CROP RATIONS 

In the use of soiling crops, it is quite possible 
to have the green forage serve as the entire ration ; 
although it is better, on the whole, that the soil- 
ing crop provide only the larger part of it, for 
the reason that in many cases the green crop 
contains such a small proportion of dry matter as 
to make it necessary for the animals to consume a 
too large bulk, even though it might be no greater 
than in pasturing in those periods when pasture 
grasses are growing rapidly and are very watery. 

Experiments show that it is possible to use 
green forage exclusively, and, while the yield of 
product is less, the cost per unit is also less than 
when fine feeds are used in connection with it. 
It is largely a question as to whether the dairyman 
desires to keep his animals up to the full standard 
of production, by supplying in reasonable bulk 
sufficient amounts of digestible food in best forms, 
or whether he desires to secure his product at the 
lowest cost even though the total production is 
reduced. If it is cheaper for him to supply the 
animals entirely by means of forage crops, this is 
the practice for him to follow, — that is, cheaper in 
the sense that if the milk yield is less, the relative 
cost is also so much less as to enable him to secure 
a larger profit. These are matters that individual 
farmers must determine for themselves. 



44 FOB AGE CROPS 

SUMMER SILAGE 

In considering the question of feeding of cattle 
throughout the year with succulent food, the sum- 
mer silo must be included. There is no doubt but 
that in many instances, and for many conditions, 
the summer silo would meet all the requirements 
of the dairy farmer for this particular form of 
food. The advantages of the silo are, chiefly, a 
saving of labor in the season when it is specially 
needed for other work, and providing a uniform 
food supply without regard to the character of the 
season. 

Whether the use of the summer silo will result 
in materially reducing the cost of the ration, 
is a question that will have to be determined by 
the actual conditions on a particular farm. To 
judge from the reports on cost of silage, there 
would undoubtedly be a saving in actual cost of 
food, providing the silos were so constructed as to 
result in a minimum loss of dry matter. It must be 
remembered, however, that in the construction of 
a silo for summer use the surface areas of the 
silo should be less per animal than for winter 
silage, owing to the more rapid fermentation 
of the silage in hot weather. At least double the 
depth, or about four inches, should be removed 
daily, instead of two inches, as in the case of 
winter silage. 



THE SUMMER SILO 45 

The use of a summer silo does not prevent the 
profitable production of other crops than corn. 
Frequently such crops as rye and crimson clover, 
when they are grown as catch -crops, have been 
successfully ensilaged in the spring for summer 
use. 

With the use of the summer silo it would be 
quite possible to carry as many animals as by the 
soiling system, providing the rotations were so 
arranged as to permit of more than one crop per 
year on the same area (as, for example, rye, wheat 
and crimson clover) , and if a large area of alfalfa 
were grown for hay to furnish protein for both 
winter and summer rations. The economics of the 
summer silo have not yet been fully worked out, 
but the question is one that has much promise as 
a means of reducing the cost of food, and of 
increasing the number of animals that may be 
kept on a given area. 



CHAPTER IV 

STRAW CEREALS AND GREEN-FORAGE GRASSES 

All cereal or grain crops produce herbage that 
is acceptable and nutritious to animals. It is often 
allowable to grow such crops solely for the herbage, 
or forage, rather than for the grain. Such crops 
usually adapt themselves well to farming plans; 
or, rather, farming plans are likely to have been 
so formed as to adapt themselves to these common 
crops. In their ordinary relations, these crops are 
well known, and only a brief discussion is neces- 
sary to explain their forage crop cultivation. 

Many of the regular hay crops can also be uti- 
lized to advantage for soiling and for other green 
foraging. The utilization of such crops for special 
purposes, when conditions are right, increases the 
pi^oductiveness of animals and also allows, in some 
cases, of a better system of handling the land. 
Two of the commonest of such grass crops are dis- 
cussed in this chapter. 

RYE AS A FORAGE CROP (Fig. 3) 

Although not generally regarded favorably, rye 
is a valuable soiling crop, primarily because in 

(46) 



BYE 



47 



many states it is available for feeding earlier in 
the spring than any other crop suitable for the 
purpose. In the central states and the middle 
west, it is ready for use about the first of May, or 
at a time when pastures are too young to use and 
when some green crop is especially desirable. A 




Pig 3. Rye, at best stage of maturity for soiling. 



48 FORAGE CROPS 

suitable variety of rye is one that makes a large 
growth of leaf, althoiig'h any variety may be 
improved in this respect l)y proper seed selecting 
and manuring. The common winter rye is gener- 
ally used, although Excelsior, Thousandfold and 
Giant are all desirable, since, in order to obtain 
a large yield of grain, tliere is a heavy leaf 
development. 

In the southern states, and as far north as 
southern New Jersey, spring rye is frequently used 
as a forage crop, as well as for grain. This plant 
has not succeeded well as far north as central New 
Jersey, although fair cro})s have been obtained 
when the plant has been used as a grain crop. It 
does not possess any peculiar advantages, and is 
not recommended in preference to other spring- 
seeded crops, on which greater dependence can 
usually be placed. 

When conditions are not favorable for soiling 
(to which it is l)est adapted), rye makes an excel- 
lent pasture; and while but one-third to one-half 
as much food is obtained as from soiling, it can be 
used through a longer period, provided it is not 
pastured too closely in its early growth. Pasturing 
is a favorite method of utilizing rye in many dairy 
districts, and the crop serves a most excellent pur- 
pose as a source of food as well as to protect the 
regular pastures from injury from too early use. 
If w^eather conditions are favorable later, a light 



BYB 49 

early pasturing will not seriously interfere with the 
maturing of the grain. 

Another advantage of rye, which should not 
be lost sight of, is its usefulness as a cover- crop, 
not only in absorbing and holding plant -food, but 
in preventing the waste of soil by washing or 
blowing. 

Rye can be seeded later in the fall than almost 
any other crop, and starts earlier in spring than 
most others. It will usually pay well to seed rye 
on raw ground as a cover- crop alone. 

Rye can also be utilized for silage. It is not so 
well adapted for silage as corn, yet if allowed to 
head out fully before cutting and to wilt slightly 
before packing in the silo, it may be preserved 
without serious loss. Its food value in silage will 
also compare favorably with that in the green 
materia] . 

Made in the proper way, rye hay is also a good 
means of utilizing the crop. It should be cut when 
at its best stage for forage, that is, before fully 
headed out, and cured in the usual way. 

Soils y manures^ and fertilizers for rye 

When grown for forage purposes, the prepara- 
tion of soil and the seeding are of great impor- 
tance, as these points have a direct bearing both 
on the earliness and the yield, notwithstanding that 



50 FORAGE CROPS 

rye is a crop that makes a good growth in relatively 
poor soils. The land should be prepared in the 
same way as when the crop is grown for grain. 
Particular care should be exercised to make the 
surface soil very fine, in order that the feeding 
rootlets may readily occupy the entire area. 

Manures should be used liberally for rye. If 
available, from six to eight loads of good barn- 
yard manure should be broadcasted after plowing, 
and thoroughly harrowed into the soil. If com- 
mercial fertilizer is used, a mixture rich in phos- 
phoric acid is especially recommended. A formula 
carrying 

Nitrogen 3 per cent 

Phosphoric acid (available) 8 per cent 

Potash 4 per cent 

is one in which the constituents are well propor- 
tioned; and its liberal use will very materially 
influence the character of the growth, not only in 
the fall, but in the following spring. The fact that 
fall -grown crops will store food in the tissue ready 
for elaboration in the spring makes it desirable 
that such crops as are intended for early forage 
shall make a vigorous growth in fall, in order that 
this appropriation of food may be accomplished to 
the best advantage, and that the spring growth 
may be early and rapid. Fertilizer should be 
applied at the rate of 200 to 400 pounds per acre, 
depending on the character of the soil. It may 



RTE 51 

be broadcasted before seeding or drilled with the 
seed. 

In order to secure the best yield, the early 
growth should be stimulated, particularly with 
nitrogenous food ; therefore an application of 100 
to 150 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre, broad- 
casted, usually about the first of April, is to be 
recommended. Experiments at the New Jersey 
Station show that an application of 150 pounds of 
nitrate of soda per acre has caused an average 
increase in yield of 37.6 per cent, besides giving 
the further advantage of lengthening the time dur- 
ing which the crop may be fed. This increase in 
yield is a very important consideration, because 
one of the strongest arguments in favor of soiling, 
as distinguished from pasturing, is that smaller 
areas are required to supply the needs of the ani- 
mals; and there is thus great reason for proper 
manuring or fertilizing, since the larger yields 
result in decreasing the area required for produc- 
ing the food for a definite number of animals. If 
possible, this application of nitrate should be 
made just preceding or after a rain, in order that 
the salt may be immediately dissolved and carried 
to the roots. In order to prevent injury, it should 
be applied only when the foliage is dry. The pur- 
pose is to get as much of the nitrogen into the 
plant as possible; thus it should be applied as 
soon as active growth begins, or when the plant 



52 FORAGE CROPS 

has resumed its vegetative functions. If applied 
earlier than this, the rate of absorption will be 
slower, and the danger of loss from leaching will 
be greater. The application may be made broadcast 
by hand, or with a good fertilizer distributer. As 
the nitrate is a heavy salt, and it is difficult evenly 
to distribute the small quantities usually recom- 
mended, it should preferably be mixed with some 
other substance, as plaster, bran, sawdust, or dry 
earth. 

Seeding and harvestifig 

The quantity of seed will vary according to the 
character of the soil. Ordinarily, when rye is 
seeded for forage, it is desirable that it should be 
thick, even though under good appropriation of 
food the plants will stool largely. If the seeding 
is thick, the great number of shoots will thicken 
the forage and make it useful for a soiling crop 
for a longer period, because the finer the stem the 
longer will the plant remain palatable. 

When grown primarily for forage, the quantity 
of seed should be greater than when the crop is 
grown for grain, — usually two bushels per acre. 

The yield per acre, even under good methods of 
management, will vary widely, according to char- 
acter of soil and season. The range is from four 
to twelve tons per acre. In experiments at the 
New Jersey Station, the average yield for seven 



BYH 53 

years has been seven tons per acre. The cost of 
seeding and fertilizing has been five dollars and 
fifty cents, making the crop one of the cheapest 
of those used for soiling. 

In order that the best results may be obtained 
from the use of rye as a green forage crop, har- 
vesting should begin as soon as the plant begins 
to head. At this period, the forage is very succu- 
lent, palatable and highly digestible. In the first 
feedings, smaller amounts should be used than are 
sufficient to supply the entire needs of the animal. 
If the plant is left until it is fully headed out 
before beginning to cut, — at which period perhaps 
the largest total amount of food would be obtained, 
— the time during which the crop may be used is 
very much shortened, and the usefulness of the 
crop, either as a source of all of the succulent food 
or as a supplement of pastures, is considerably 
reduced. Under average conditions, when the 
practice outlined here is followed, rye may serve 
to supply the herd with a palatable food for ten to 
twenty days, the period depending on the method 
of seeding and the character of the season. 

If it is desirable to have a long period of feeding, 
the crop should be seeded at different times. The 
first seeding should be made in the middle states 
in August, and the second as late as the middle of 
September, or first of October. This later seeding 
will make a much less vigorous growth in fall, will 



54 FOB AGE CHOPS 

start later in spring and will therefore be ready 
for feeding a week or ten days later than that from 
the first seeding, and which has been stimulated 
as outlined. 

Chemical composition of the rye crop 

If the rye crop is used when in the best condi- 
tion for forage, it contains a high content of water, 
or an average of only about 18 per cent of dry 
matter. In this stage of growth, the content of 
nitrogenous matter is relatively large, although it 
is not entirely organized into albuminoids. As the 
crop matures, the dry matter increases and the 
crude fiber and nitrogen -free extract increase rela- 
tively much more rapidly than the nitrogenous 
compounds, and the nutritive ratio is widened. 
The average composition of green rye and yield of 
nutrients are as follows: 

One ton ^" average 

contains acre-yield 

furnishes 
Per cent Lbs. Lbs. 

Water 81.95 ... ... 

Dry matter 18.05 361.0 2527.0 

Ether extract 0.65 13.0 91.0 

Crude fiber 4.29 85.8 600.6 

Protein 2.13 42.6 298.2 

Ash 1.36 37.2 259.4 

Nitrogen-free extract .... 9.61 192.2 1345.4 

A yield of seven tons, therefore, will furnish 
about one and one-fourths tons of dry matter, 
which will contain about 300 pounds of protein, 



BYE 55 

and nearly one ton of carbohydrates, including 
fiber; the total protein is practically equivalent to 
that contained in one ton of wheat bran, and the 
carbohydrates are equivalent to that contained in 
nearly two tons, but with a rate of digestibility 
much higher than for the bran. The relatively 
large yield of ntitrients, together with the fact that 
the crop may be secured without large expense, 
and without interfering with the growing of other 
crops the same season, make rye a crop worthy of 
consideration. It is now chiefly grown in the 
northeastern states, but its area might be profit- 
ably extended. 

Feeding rye 

It is desirable in the beginning, and when the 
plant is in an immature state, to feed about one- 
half the quantity that the animals usually require, 
say thirty pounds per day, and by the third day 
increase it to fifty or sixty pounds for a 1,000- 
pound cow. Sixty pounds will supply about ten 
pounds of dry matter, or nearly one -half of the 
total required in a daily ration for a cow in full 
flow of milk. Larger amounts are often fed, but 
usually not to good advantage. Dairy animals are 
very fond of green rye, when cut at the proper 
time, and its feeding will always result in an 
increase in the flow of milk, due both to its suc- 
culence and to the fact that at the right stage of 



56 FOB AGE CHOPS 

growth for soiling it is very well balanced in its 
proportions of nutrients. 



WHEAT AS A FORAGE CROP 

Wheat can be successfully used for forage pur- 
poses. It will be ready for use usually as soon as 
the rye has reached the unpalatable stage. Wheat 
is not so economical as rye in many respects ; the 
seed is more expensive, it is less hardy and thus 
liable to suffer greater injury from unfavorable 
weather conditions, and does not start so rapidly 
in spring. It also requires a richer soil for its best 
growth. As in the case of rye, when it is designed 
as a forage crop, either for soiling or for pasture, 
the crop should be seeded a little earlier than the 
usual time of seeding for grain, that is, not later 
than September 1 in the middle states. 

Any variety that is well adapted for grain to 
the soil and climate of the given locality will be 
suitable for forage, although the kinds that make 
large straw, — and preferably beardless varieties, 
— are to be recommended. 

Wheat also makes excellent pasture, and if 
managed carefully a large quantity of food may be 
obtained. Care should be used to prevent too 
close early cropping. 

Wheat also makes a highly nutritious and 
palatable hay if cut when just in full head, and 



WHEAT 57 

carefully cured. In this way it is used with great 
satisfaction in many parts of the country. 

Preparation of soil, and seeding 

The land should be as thoroughly well prepared 
as in seeding for the grain crop. Land should be 
well cultivated, thoroughly firmed and the surface 
two or three inches made very fine, so as to 
provide conditions favorable for quick germination 
and the easy penetration of the fine rootlets. 

When yard or stable manure is available, it is 
good practice to apply it broadcast on the surface 
at the rate of six to eight tons per acre, and thor- 
oughly incorporate it with the surface soil. This 
may be reinforced by the application of 100 to 150 
pounds per acre of dissolved bone; or, when the 
land is reasonably well supplied with nitrogen, the 
same quantity of acid phosphate may be used per 
acre. It is essential that an abundance of available 
phosphoric acid should be at the disposal of the 
plant in the early stages of growth . In the absence 
of home manures, an application of a fertilizer 
reasonably rich in nitrogen and phosphoric acid 
should be applied, as the principles indicated for 
rye hold true also in the case of wheat: that is, the 
plant, having an abundance of available food in the 
fall, will absorb it, and that which is not converted 
into plant substance will be retained, in part at 



58 FORAGE CROPS 

least, in the tissues and be ready for elaboration in 
early spring. A suitable application may be made 
of 300 pounds per acre of a fertilizer containing 

Nitrogen 3 per cent 

Phosphoric acid (available) 8 per cent 

Potash 5 per cent 

If wheat is sown primarily for forage the quantity 
of seed should be larger than when grain is the 
purpose, or at the rate of two to two and one -half 
bushels per acre. This is heavy seeding, but there 
should be no bare spots, and the plants should be 
so thick as to make the proportion of leaf large 
and the stems very small, and permit of a longer 
use as forage. 

Value and yield of wheat 

The wheat crop is at its best when just in full 
head, although its use should begin just as it is 
heading out. Wheat is superior to rye, as it can 
be fed for a longer period, and is usually more 
palatable. Wheat is also superior to rye because it 
contains more dry matter when in a condition suit- 
able for soiling; therefore, a smaller amount will 
supply a larger quantity of actual nutrients. When 
just heading out, analysis shows it to contain on 
the average 23 per cent of dry matter, and in pro- 
portions of constituents such as to make the 
product a fairly well-balanced ration. In its more 
nearly matured state it contains a larger proportion 



WHEAT 59 

of digestible nitrogen -free substance than the rye. 
Owing to the fact that wheat contains more dry 
matter than I'ye, when at tlie best stage of growth, 
it can be fed immediately in the usual quantities 
without injury. From fifty to sixty pounds per 
day is the quantity most generally used. 

The average yields per acre are slightly greater 
than for rye, due mainly to the fact that it can be 
cut at a later stage of maturity. Yields are much 
increased by a judicious top-dressing of nitrate of 
soda, as recommended for rye, the increase being 
usually greater than in the case of rye, because of 
the longer period in which the plants have access 
to the food previous to cutting, — rye having about 
a month for the absorption of the nitrate, whereas 
the wheat has from six to seven weeks. The 
average increase in yield from the application of 
150 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre, at the New 
Jersey Station, was over 60 per cent. 

Wheat is slightly less useful as a cover- crop 
than rye, because it usually does not make so 
vigorous growth in the fall, and starts off much 
less rapidly in the spring. Still, it has its use 
for this purpose, and one which should not be 
ignored. Wheat and rye, because of their early 
maturity, are especially suitable for supplement- 
ing early spring pastures. In fact, they are the 
only crops, except in the South, that possess this 
most valuable characteristic. 



GO FOB AGE CBOPS 

Average Composition of Fodder Wheat and Yield of 

Nutrients a^ averaee 

couttiius furnishes 

Per cent Lbs. Lbs. 

vVater 77. 30 ... ... 

Dry matter 22.70 454.0 3632.0 

Ether extract 0.70 14.0 112.0 

Crude fiber 5.90 118.0 944.0 

Protein 2.40 48.0 384.0 

Ash 1.80 36.0 288.0 

Nitrogen- free extract .... 11.90 238.0 1904.0 

Wheat well grown and cut at the right time, 
will yield more than rye, as high as twelve tons 
having been secured at the New Jersey Station. 
At an average of eight tons per acre, the nutrients 
will compare favorably with many of the more 
common forage crops on this basis of yield. The 
protein considerably exceeds that in an average 
crop of rye. 

OATS AS A FORAGE CROP 

Oats are also used as a soiling and as a hay 
crop, and are very well adapted for these pur- 
poses. The best soils are rich loams, containing 
an abundance of organic matter. Because of the 
season in which the plant grows, fertilizers should 
contain an abundance of nitrogen in an available 
form. When oats are used for forage purposes, 
the nitrogen may be used in greater excess than 
when they are grown for grain, as the stimulation 
of the plant will not result in injuring the quality 



OATS 61 

of the crop. The forcing of leaf and stem prevents 
normal ripening and encourages those conditions 
which are favorable for the attack of fungous dis- 
eases. The fertilizer should contain a large pro- 
portion of its nitrogen in the form of a nitrate. 
A good dressing should consist of at least 

Nitrogen 12 pounds 

Phosphoric acid (available) 20 pounds 

Potash 10 pounds 

Or, an application of 300 pounds of a mixture 
containing 

Nitrogen derived from nitrate 4.0 per cent 

Phosphoric acid (available) 7.0 percent 

Potash 3.5 per cent 

It is well known that after the food in the seed 
is used by the plant, the crop does not grow rap- 
idly. This is thought to be due in part at least to 
the absence at this season of available plant- food 
of the right kind, since liberal applications of 
nitrates and superphosphates seem to produce a 
continuous and rapid growth. That this suspen- 
sion of the vegetative activities should be over- 
come in the case of forage crops is important, as 
it hastens the development and makes it possible 
to secure the crop at an early period. 

When seeded primarily for forage, the quantity 
of seed should be greater than when sown together 
with peas. From two and one -half to three 



Q2 FOB AGE CROPS 

bushels per acre are recommended. The thicker 
seeding causes a finer growth of stem and a greater 
proportionate growth of leaf, besides making the 
crop available for soiling purposes for a longer 
period. 

Time of harvesting oat& 

The time of harvesting should be regulated by 
the development of the plant, which is at its best 
for forage when the oat grain is in the milk stage. 
At this period, the lower leaves are still green, and 
the succulence is maintained. At this time, also, 
the plant is richer in protein than either wheat or 
rye, and apparently the protein is much more 
digestible than in those crops. Cool, moist sea- 
sons are most favorable. Light, warm soils, which 
heat up readily, are uncongenial. 

Yields and value 

The yields vary widely, as the plant is very 
materially affected by seasonal conditions. The 
range is from four to ten tons per acre. The 
average content of dry matter is about 25 per cent. 

The oat crop is also very useful for pasturage, 
and also for hay when cut at its best period of 
maturity for forage. The entire plant is much 
richer in digestible constituents than is timothy 
hay, and is peculiarly valuable in rations for dairy 



OATS 63 

cows. Therefore, if not needed for supplementing 
pastures, it serves an excellent purpose as hay for 
winter feeding. 

Composition of Oat Forage and Oat Hay 

GREEN forage Que ton ^" average 

contqiTis acre-yield 

coutams furnishes 

Per cent Lbs. Lbs. 

Water 75.00 ... ... 

Dry matter 25.00 500.0 3500.0 

Ether extract 0.92 18.4 128.0 

Crude fiber 7.40 148.0 1036.0 

Protein 2.25 45.0 315.0 

Ash 1.65 33.0 231.0 

Nitrogen-free extract .... 12.77 255.4 1787.8 

hay 

Water 25.00 . . . 

Dry matter 75.00 1500.0 

Ether extract 2.76 55.2 

Crude fiber 22.20 444.0 

Protein 6.75 135.0 

Ash 4.95 99.0 

Nitrogen-free extract .... 38.31 766.2 

Winter oats 

In the southern states, and as far north as 
southern New Jersey, winter oats serve an excel- 
lent purpose as early summer forage. The advan- 
tages are chiefly that it serves as a cover- crop in 
the fall and winter, and saves time of seeding in 
spring. It should be seeded not later than the 
middle of September at the rate of two to two and 



64 FOB AGE CROPS 

one -half bushels per acre. It thrives on soils well 
fertilized, as for wheat or rye. In spring it should 
receive a top-dressing of nitrate of soda of 100 to 
150 pounds per acre. 

The winter oats will be ready for harvesting a 
little earlier than spring oats. They should be 
harvested as other grains, in the milk stage, or 
just before hardening. The yield is usually not so 
large as for the spring oats, although when well 
suited to the soil and well fertilized, from six to 
eight tons per acre may be secured. This crop 
also makes an excellent hay if cut when at its 
best stage for soiling. It will serve a good pur- 
pose for late fall and early spring pasture. When 
used for this purpose, the land would be ready to 
plant to corn the latter part of May. 

BARLEY 

In the more northern of the eastern and central 
western states, barley is a most excellent forage 
crop. It is better suited for fall forage than for 
spring forage. It is similar to oats in its soil and 
manurial requirements. A rich, deep soil, contain- 
ing an abundance of vegetable matter, is particu- 
larly well adapted to the crop. Its requirements 
in the way of nitrogenous manures are similar to 
those for oats; therefore, the recommendations for 
oats would apply equally well to barley. 



B ABLE r, ORG HABD-GIiASS 65 

Barley is particularly well adapted for late fall 
forage, as it is not injured by light fi'osts, as are 
oats. It may be seeded the middle of August, at 
the rate of two to two and one -half bushels per 
acre, depending on the character of soil, and will 
make a succulent forage after frost has killed the 
ordinary summer plants. 

Its composition is similar to that of oats. If it 
has reached the heading stage, it will contain a 
high content of dry matter. It is richer than oats 
in protein. It is highly relished by all farm 
animals. Because of its season of growth, it is a 
very useful plant in the saving of regular winter 
forage materials. The yields run from five to seven 
tons per acre. 

Barley also makes excellent late fall pasture. 
Of course the quantity of food secured by pastur- 
ing is much less than if the crop is harvested and 
taken directly to the barn or paddock for feeding. 
Owing to the fact that it matures late, it is not 
generally useful for hay. 

ORCHARD -GRASS 

Orchard - grass (Dactt/lis glomerata) is among 
the earliest grasses that are useful for soiling or 
for pasture. It possesses many valuable charac- 
teristics, and is worthy of more careful attention 
than is usually accorded it. Its chief advantage 

E 



Q6 FORAGE CROPS 

lies in the fact that it is ready for use two or three 
weeks earlier than the grasses ordinarily grown; 
it is a plant, also, that makes a very heavy growth 
under good conditions of soil and season. It is 
not so suitable for sowing with grain as timothy 
and red top, and therefore the soil should be pre- 
pared with the idea of securing the largest stand 
of it growing alone. 

Preparation of soil and seeding 

As with other grasses, it is desirable that the 
preparing of land for orchard - grass should be 
carefully performed, and particularly that the sur- 
face should be well pulverized and a fine tilth 
secured. 

The quantity of seed required will depend some- 
what on the character of soil. It is not desirable 
to grow this grass for forage except on good soils, 
and then two bushels, or about twenty -eight 
pounds of seed, should be used per acre. Thick 
seeding is more likely to ensure a growth of fine 
small stems and leaves, which are very essential in 
the best use of all forage crops. If not sown thick 
enough, or if it is uneven, its natural tendency to 
grow in bunches or tussocks is encouraged, making 
a coarse, rank stem and leaf, which are less pala- 
table and digestible. For forage purposes, seeding 
should preferably be made in late summer or fall. 



ORCHABB-GRASS 67 

For the eastern, middle or western states, from 
the middle of August to the middle of September 
is the proper time. 

3Ianures and fertilisers for orchard -grass 

Like other grasses, orchard - grass requires 
abundance of nitrogenous food, and therefore the 
promise of a crop is very much increased by the 
application of manures or fertilizers containing 
nitrogen at the time of seeding, and by top -dress- 
ings with nitrate of soda in the spring. The recom- 
mendations usually made for seeding down with 
grass in general, can be followed here with suc- 
cess, — to use eight to ten tons of yard manure 
per acre when it is available, thoroughly incorpor- 
ating it with the soil previous to seeding. If such 
manures are not available, then an application is 
recommended of 300 to 500 pounds of a fertilizer 
containing 

Nitrogen 4 per cent 

Phosphoric acid (available) 8 per cent 

Potash 8 per cent 

The fertilizer should be applied previous to seeding, 
and well harrowed in. On most soils, it w^ill also 
pay well to follow this in spring with a top-dress- 
ing of nitrate of soda, at the rate of 100 to 150 
pounds per acre, applied as soon as the plants 
have begun their vegetative functions, usually dur- 



68 FORAGE CHOPS 

iiig- the first half of April in Pennsylvania and 
Ohio. 

Harvest and yields of orchard-grass 

Under favorable conditions, plants of orchard- 
grass reach a height of three to four feet. The 
leaves are abundant and coarse, although they 
make a very palatable and nutritious food if cut 
at the right time, which is just as the crop is be- 
ginning to head. The plant hardens very rapidly 
after coming into head. It can be used for eight 
to ten days only, providing cutting begins early 
enough. In average seasons, in the middle states, 
first cuttings can be made the last week in May. 
Under good conditions of soil and season, the 
yield for the first cut will I'ange from five to eight 
tons of green forage per acre. 

Orchard-grass in bloom, — which is the latest 
period in its development when it can be used suc- 
cessfully for green forage, — contains about 27 per 
cent of dry matter. It is less nitrogenous than 
either rye or wheat; therefore, feed rations should 
be richer in protein than in the case of those two 
crops. 

When cut at the usual time, if immediately top- 
dressed, either with yard manure or a fertilizer, a 
second cutting may be secured the same season. 
The yield of this crop usually will not be so large 
as the first cutting, although the treatment of the 



ORCnAED-GnASS 69 

crop and the character of the season will mate- 
rially influence this point. If the season is good, 
the second cutting may be made in August, and 
a yield of four to six tons secured, and it will 
be quite as rich in dry matter as the first cutting; 
usually it will be richer in protein, as in the second 
crop the tendency to form stems is lessened. 

Pasture mid hay 

When not desired as a green forage crop, 
orchard-grass may be pastured successfully, and if 
it is rather closely eaten, it is an excellent crop for 
the purpose. It should not be allowed to make too 
large growth before the animals are turned on, as 
it soon hardens and becomes unpalatable, particu- 
larly if the weather is dry. If cut just at the period 
of blooming, or even a little earlier, it makes good 
hay, and the largest quantity of palatable and 
digestible food per acre may be expected. 

Composition of Orchard- Grass 

■^ . An average 

^"^, ^."" .•K-re-yield 

contums furnishes 

Per eent Lbs. Lbs. 

Water 73 ... ... 

Dry matter 27.0 540 5,400 

Ether extract 0.9 18 180 

Crude fiber 8.2 1G4 1,G40 

Protein 2.0 52 520 

Ash 2 40 400 

Nitrogen - free extrjiot .... 13.3 266 2,660 



70 FORAGE CHOPS 

All average yield of ten tons for the two cuttings 
will give for the season 5,400 pounds of dry mat- 
ter, of which 510 pounds will be protein, while the 
content of crude fiber is relatively greater than in 
rye. The digestibility, therefore, is likely to be 
hardly as high as for rye, although no data on this 
point are recorded. 

ITALIAN RYE -GRASS 

Another grass that has received some attention 
as a forage crop, particularly for summer pasture 
and soiling, is Italian rye-grass {Lolimn Italicum) . 
This grass is native of Europe, and has been 
grown there for a long time. It is especially 
suitable for moist soils, or for soils that can be 
irrigated, and responds very profitably to the 
application of water or heavy fertilization. 

Freparation of soil and seeding 

The preparation of soil and seeding should fol- 
low the same lines as those suggested for orchard- 
grass. When seeded in the fall, great care should 
be exercised to ensure rapid germination and early 
growth. 

From twenty to thirty pounds of seed should be 
used per acre, preferably broadcasted both ways 
by hand, and lightly covered with the harrow. 



BYE-GBASS 71 

When there is not sufficient moisture to ensure au 
immediate germination, it is good practice to go 
over the soil with a light roller. This compacting 
of the surface will encourage the upward move- 
ment of water, and have a tendency to ensure 
quick germination and growth. 

Yield and value of rye-grass 

Eye- grass produces abundant leaves. It grows 
two to three feet high. It may be harvested in the 
eastern states by the middle of May or first of 
June. While the yield is usually not so great as 
that of orchard -grass, it grows much more rapidly, 
aud when suitably manured will make two or 
three cuttings for soiling purposes in the same 
season. When an abundance of plant -food is 
available, very heavy yields are obtained, as high 
as sixteen to eighteen tons of green forage per acre 
having been recorded as the entire yield from three 
cuttings . 

When in the best condition for soiling, or when 
just heading, rye-grass contains about the same 
amount of dry matter as orchard -grass, although 
it is richer in nitrogenous substance and poorer in 
crude fiber. It thus makes a more palatable and 
richer food than orchard -grass. It does not stand 
the northern winters well, and its best use in this 
country, except in the South, has been as an 



72 FOBAGE CROPS 

annual, the land being re -seeded each year. It 
makes excellent pasture, relished by all stock, 
and yields an abundant crop of hay of good quality 
for dairy cows. 

Composition of Italian Rye -Grass 

n, . An average 

<^"f t^" acre-yield 

contains furnishes 
Per cent. Ll)s. Lbs, 

Water 73.2 ... ... 

Dry matter 26.8 5;}() 6,4:52 

Ether extract 1.3 26 312 

Crude fiber 6.8 136 1,632 

Protein 3.1 62 744 

Ash 2.5 50 600 

Nitrogen -free extract 13.3 266 3,192 

The large quantity of dry matter, over three 
tons per acre (assuming an average yield of 
twelve tons), that may be obtained from a careful 
growing and handling, and its capability of being 
cut several times, make it a most desirable crop 
when the conditions favorable for its best develop- 
ment are present. In order that these large yields 
may bo secured, however, it should not be allowed 
to ripen, but cut when in the blossom stage. After 
each cutting it should be top-dressed with fertili- 
zers rich in nitrates, particularly on light soils. 



CHAPTER V 

MILLETS AND TEOSINTE 

Among the summer -growing forage plants, the 
millets have long been prominent. There are sev- 
eral distinct kinds of millets, belonging to different 
genera of the grass family. The Barnyard millet 
is Fanicum Cms -g alii ^ an improved form of the 
common weedy barnyard grass. The Hungarian 
and German millets belong to the group of foxtail 
grasses of the genus Setaria or Chsetochloa, a 
type of weedy late summer grass known as pigeon- 
grass and foxtail grass. The Pearl millet is a 
Pennisetum (P. spicatum) . Another group of 
millets is of the genus Panicum (forms of P. mil- 
iaceum) . The Broom-corn millet (not the same 
as the broom -corn grown for brooms) is of this 
species. The term Japanese millet is often used, 
but it has little significance for there are Japanese 
forms of several kinds of millets; it is oftenest 
used for the Barnyard group. It will be seen, 
therefore, that the term millet includes a number 
of plants very unlike botanically; but they are all 
similar in being grassy summer- growing plants 
suitable for haymaking as well as for green forage. 

(73) 



74 FOB AGE CROPS 

The millets belong to a group of crops that grow 
quickly, and are what may be termed "hot weather 
plants." They do not thrive in cool weather. They 
are useful as hay catch -crops, or as regular forage 
crops for substituting* pastures, or for soiling. All 
the kinds of millet that have been tested possess 
valuable characteristics, although the recently 
introduced Japanese or Barnyard varieties are 
proving more useful for green -forage purposes 
than the older and better known kinds, largely 
because of more rapid growth and larger yields. 

All the millets are native to the Old World, but 
the cultivated forms are cosmopolitan. In some 
countries, some of the millets are grown for the 
grain for human food. 

BARNYARD MILLET (Figs. A, 5, 6) 

Of the oriental forms, the Barnyard millet has 
given the best satisfaction in the East as green 
forage. It grows very rapidly, and frequently 
reaches a height of four to six feet. When cut at 
the right time, it is a most excellent soiling crop, as 
it is succulent and palatable. Maximum crops can 
be secured only wdien there is present an abundance 
of all of the fertility elements in available forms. 
A crop of ten tons per acre of this forage removes 
large quantities of plant -food elements, practically 
all of which are absorbed from the immediate sur- 



BABNTARD MILLET 



75 



Pig, 4. Head of 
Barnyard millet 



face and within a very short time. 
Experience in the growth of this 
crop has shown that the artificial 
fertilizers are quite as useful as 
yard manure. When manure can 
be obtained cheaply, ten to twelve 
tons per acre should be applied 
as soon as the land is plowed 
and thoroughly incorporated with 
the soil. In the absence of yard 
manure, a heavy dressing should 
be applied of a mixture of ni- 
trate of soda, acid phosphate and 
muriate of potash, furnishing at 
least twenty-five pounds of nitro- 
gen, twenty of available phosphor- 
ic acid and fifty of actual potash 
per acre. An increase in yield of 
75 per cent has followed the ap- 
plication of 160 pounds per acre 
of nitrate of soda, making a very 
profitable gain from this practice. 
The nitrate not only supplies the 
needed nitrogen, but encourages 
a larger development and greater 
activity on the part of the plant, 
thus enabling it to secure a larger 
proportion of nitrogen from soil 
sources, which would be impossi- 



76 VOUAGK CROPS 

ble to a plant of less vigorous growth. Since the 
crop is grown only during the hot summer 
season, when droughts are frequent, this practice 
of applying available nitrogenous food is very 
important. 

Preparation of soil, and seeding 

The preparation of land should be very thorough, 
the entire surface deeply cultivated, and the soil 
particles made as fine as possible in order to insure 
a ready absorption and retention of moisture, 
making conditions favorable for quick germination 
and rapid continuous growth. 

The crop may be seeded from the middle of 
May to the first of July, either broadcast or in 
drills. When labor is expensive, and the soil is 
reasonably free from weeds, the broadcast seeding 
is recommended. 

The quantity of seed to use ranges from thirty 
to forty pounds per acre, broadcasted, and from 
ten to fifteen pounds drilled. 

Harvesting and yields of Barnyard millet 

In favorable seasons, the crop will reach the 
cutting stage in fifty days, but if the season is dry 
and cold proper maturity will not be reached in 
two months or longer. 




Pig. 5. Baruyard millet (Panicum Crus-galli) 



BABJy VABD MILLET 79 

When used for soiling purposes, harvesting 
should begin when the plant is just beginning to 
show heads. At this stage, the plant is very suc- 
culent and is eagerly eaten by all farm stock. 
Inasmuch as it grows so rapidly, and because it 
develops and hardens so quickly in dry weather, 
it cannot be used for a long period for soiling pur- 
poses, from six to eight days being the range under 
ordinary seasonal conditions. Because proper at- 
tention is not given to this point, many farmers 
regard this kind of millet unfavorably. When cut 
at this stage of growth. Barnyard millet contains 
a relatively small percentage of crude fiber, 
although it is much richer in the non- nitrogenous 
substances than are oats, wheat or rye. It con- 
tains, on the average, about 15 per cent of dry 
matter. The large yields of green forage, — eight to 
twelve tons, or an average on good soils of about 
eight tons, — make the total amount of food very 
satisfactory; and animals will consume a relatively 
larger proportion of it than of certain other kinds. 
As high as seventy -five pounds per day have been 
fed with satisfaction. 

For hay, Barnyard millet should be cut jnst as 
it is heading out. Although somewhat difficult to 
cure, it makes a forage which is very palatable 
and useful for winter feeding. Yields of hay have 
often reached as high as three to four tons per 
acre; but it is not recommended for hay- making 



80 



FORAGE CROPS 



¥r^ 



when other and better hay 
plants can be successfully 
grown. Farmers are too likely 
to defer cutting until the stalks 
begin to harden, when the hay 
made is unpalatable, even 
though well cured. 

Composition and Yield of Nutrients op 
Barnyard Millet 



Per cent 

Water 84.76 

Dry matter .... J5.24 
Ether extract ... .45 

Fiber 4.50 

Protein 1.50 

Ash 1.63 

Nitrogen -free extract 7.16 



One ton 
contains 

Lbs. 



304.8 

9.0 

90.0 

30.0 

32.6 

143.2 



An average 
acre-yield 
furnislies 
Lbs. 



2438.4 

72,0 

720.0 

240.0 

260.8 

1145.6 



Fig. 7. 

('oniniou niilk't. 

About natural size. 



FOXTAIL MILLETS (Figs. 7-10) 

The foxtail millets are of several 
varieties. The common millet (Fig. 
7), much grown in this country, is 
an old standby for summer forage 
and catch- crop hay, being much 
prized for its quick growth and its 
relatively fine soft hay. This com- 
mon small millet is regarded as 
somewhat representing the original 
form of the foxtail millets {Chceto- 



FOXTAIL MILLETS 



81 



cliloa Italica ; or Setaria 
Itallca of some botanies). 
By some authorities it is re- 
garded as a developed form 
of the common weedy green 
foxtail grass {Chcctocliloa 
viridis) , itself an introduc- 
tion from the Old World. 
The German millet is a 
larger and bushy - headed 
dark-colored form (Fig. 8). 
The Hungarian millet or 
Hungarian grass {Chcetocliloa 
Itallca^ var. Germanica Fig. 
9), is much like the common 
millet, but is somewhat 
taller, more branching, the 
head usually not nodding and 
compact. Golden Wonder 
millet (C Italica^ Fig. 10) is 
a veiy robust form, reaching 
six feet, and with compound, 
drooping, tawny or purplish heads ""* 
sometimes a foot long. The four 
foxtail millets above mentioned are 
the ones that are best known. Ex- 
cept in time of maturity and yield, 
they do not differ greatly in agri- 
cultural value. 




Fig. 8. 

German 

millet. 

Nearly 

natural 

size. 



82 



FORAGE CROPS 



Hungarian millet grows very quickly and is 
very useful for supple- ^wV^, 
menting a shortage in ^r^^'ii *^ 
the regular hay crop, or '^^fiS^i^t-'-^-^^ 
for supplying the dairy 
herd with green forage, 
although not so desirable as 
the Barnyard millet. The Ger- 
man and Golden millets usually 
make a larger yield than the Hun- 
garian, require a little longer time 
for growth, and should not be seeded 
later than the first of July. 




In all these varieties, the quantity -^^; ^ 
of seed to sow is about one bushel per '0^^,-^!^}' 



acre. The practices recommended for ;^ 



Barnyard millet in preparation of soil, -&\^il' 
use of fertilizers and manures, and 
time of harvesting, should be adopted. 
All varieties of millet are surface 
feeders; large crops will absorb all 
of the available plant- food, leaving 
the land in poor condition for 
crops following the same season. 
The time of cutting is espe- 
cially important, as too 
complete maturity re- 
sults in poor and un- 
palatable hay. 



f;'' 




Fig. 9. 

Hungarian millet. 

About natural size. 



FOXTAIL MILLETS 



83 



Composition and Yield of Nutrients of 
Hungarian Millet Forage and Hay 



Per cent 

Water 71.10 

Dry matter . . . 28.90 

Ether extract . . .70 

Fiber 9.20 

Protein 3.10 

Ash 1.70 

Nitrogen-free ex- 
tract .... 14.20 

HAY 

Water 7.70 

Dry matter . . . 92.30 

Ether extract . . 2 10 

Fiber 27.70 

Protein 7.50 

Ash 6.00 

Nitrogen -free ex- 
tract .... 49.00 



One ton 
contains 

Lbs. 



578.0 
14.0 

184.0 
62.0 
34.0 

284.0 



1846.0 

42.0 

554.0 

150.0 

120.0 



980.0 



An average 

acre-yield 

fnrni.shes 

Lbs. 



3468.0 
84.0 

1104.0 
372.0 
204.0 

1704.0 





Properly made millet hay of 
the above varieties is nutritive 
and palatable, the average com- 
position showing it to be richer 
in protein than timothy. 

The uses of the foxtail 
millets in New York are de- 
scribed as follows by 
Eoberts and Clinton 
(Cornell Bul- 
letin 



135): 



Fig. 10. Golden 

Wonder millet. 

About three - fourths 

natural size. 



84 FORAGE CROPS 

"They are not recommended as being valuable as 
a part of the regular rotation, but as catch -crops 
or special crops they have their place. They are 
very depleting to the soil and many have had un- 
satisfactory experience in feeding them to stock. 
. . . One value of millet lies in the fact that it 
can be sown late; in fact, it must not be sown until 
all danger from frost is over. It develops rapidly, 
and during midsummer is ready to begin cutting 
for forage about thirty days from time of seeding. 
The Hungarian is quicker maturing than the others 
and for late sowing is preferable to either the com- 
mon or the German millet. In such a year as 1894 
or 1895, when many farmers found their hay crop 
a disappointment and were at a loss to know 
how to supplement it, Hungarian or other millets 
would possibly have served the purpose w^ell. 

"The soil should be rich and given thorough 
preparation. Clay soils which are inclined to be 
lumpy require extra precaution in fitting. The 
amount of seed required varies from one-half 
bushel to three x^ecks per acre, which should be 
harrowed in lightly and rolled. On freshly cleared 
or bottom-land soils it makes a rank growth and is 
available for forage at a time when it is usually 
found necessary to supplement the pastures. 
Though it is a gross feeder, yet this fact may be of 
actual benefit to the kinds of soil just mentioned. 

"When stock is turned in upon a field of green 



FOXTAILS, PEARL MILLET 85 

millet for the first time, or a heavy feed is givei], 
there is danger that serious results may follow. 
Animals not accustomed to green forage should 
not at first be allowed a full feed of any green 
crop, especially millet, but should be given only a 
part ration of the green material. If allowed to 
gorge themselves, serious results may follow. If it 
is desired that the animals be turned upon the 
crop to pasture, this should be done only after their 
appetite has been partly appeased by other food. 

"Millet hay is not in popular favor, owning to 
the fatal results which, in some cases, have fol- 
lowed its use. Just why these unsatisfactory 
results sometimes follow does not seem to be clear. 
In feeding it to horses, caution should be observed 
and the millet hay used in conjunction with some 
other coarse fodder. Much of the value of millet 
hay seems to depend upon the time of cutting, 
whicii should ho. done soon after blossoming." 

PEARL OR CAT-TAm MILLET (Fig. 11, 12) 

This millet is highly recommended over a wide 
range of country. It is a summer plant, a rank 
grower, attains a great height when mature, — 
seven to nine feet, — and produces an enormous 
quantity of forage. The Penicillaria and Maud's 
Wonder millets are of this same species {Pennise- 
tum spicatum) . 



86 FOB AGE CHOPS 

Manures and fertilizers for Fearl millet 

In order that a large yield of succulent forage 
may be secured, Pearl millet should be grown only 
on naturally rich lands, or on those heavily manured 
or fertilized. The soil should be thoroughly and 
deeply prepared, for, although it is a surface feeder, 
the roots more completely occupy the soil than is 
the case with the Barnyard or other kinds of mil- 
let. The manures should be broadcasted, previous 
to seeding, at the rate of ten to twelve tons per 
acre. Fertilizing should follow the recommenda- 
tions made for Barnyard millet. 

Amount of seed and method of seeding 

The quantity of seed required is relatively small, 
as the plants possess the branching habit. If 
planted in rows to allow of tillage, three feet apart, 
one pound of seed wdll be sufficient for an acre. 
This will provide a seed every three or four inches 
in the row. If broadcasted, three or four pounds 
per acre will be sufficient. Pearl millet germinate^^ 
quickly, and grows veiy rapidly. It withstands 
drought well. It should be tilled, the surface being 
kept constantly stirred, if best results are to be 
had, particularly in dry seasons. Pearl millet is 
frequently grown with vining varieties of cowpeas, 
the stalks making a good support for the peas. 



S8 FORAGE CROPS 

Yield and value of crop 

The largest yield of palatable and digestible 
food will be secured if Pearl millet is cut just as it 
begins to head. This stage will be reached in 
about three months from time of seeding; that is, 
if planted early in June, it will be ready for the 
beginning of harvest the latter part of August or 
first of September. It should not be allowed to 
head out fully before cutting, because the plants 
rapidly increase in crude fiber as the heads begin 
to form, and soon become hard and unpalatable. 
The yields vary widely, ranging from eight to over 
twenty tons per acre, the latter figure being reached 
when all soil and seasonal conditions are favor- 
able, and when the crop is allowed to mature. 

For the eastern and central states Pearl millet 
does not possess advantages over the Barnyard 
millet, except possibly in its yield, although the 
larger yield requires a longer period of growth. 
For a catch -crop it is not so desirable as the 
Barnyard millet. If cut just before heading, it is 
said that it will make a very rapid second growth, 
which may be harvested in a month to six weeks. 
The experience gained in the eastern and middle 
states does not confirm the advantages of this 
practice, for, while the plant makes a considerable 
second growth, it is not large enough ordinarily 
to pay for the use of the land. Farther south this 



PEARL MILLET 



89 



practice may be found to be more successful If 
cut after making a growth of three or four feet it 
might make a profitable second crop, the total 
crop being much larger than the larger first reg- 
ular crop and the smaller second 
one. Much has yet to be learned 
concerning the best method of 
handling this plant. 

When in the best condition for 
feeding, Pearl millet contains a rela- 
tively low content of dry matter. 

Analyses of 
crops grown at 
the New Jersey 
Station showed an average of but 
17 per cent of dry matter, with a 
much higher content of crude fiber 
than in Barnyard millet. It may 
be fed in the same way as Barn- 
yard millet, however, both as regards 
the method and the amount. While 
Pearl millet has been recommended 
for hay and for silage, it does not 
possess any superior qualities for 
these uses, corn being a much supe- 
rior plant, both from the standpoint 
of palatability and yield of diges- 
Pear, n.Het (P.. ^^^^fj^^^^rial per acrc. In the more 
niseinm spicatum) ^^^^them statcs, and in the semi- 



Fisr. 12. 



90 FORAGE CHOPS 

arid parts of certain of the western states, the 
plant is very highly recommended, because of its 
adaptability to the longer season and hotter 
weather. 

Composition and Yield of Nutrients in Pearl Millet When 
Suitable for Soiling 





Per cent 


One ton 
contains 

Lbs. 


An average 
acre -yield 
furnishes 
Lbs. 


Water » . . . 


. . 83.04 


. . . 


. . 


Dry matter ....... 


. . 16.96 


339.2 


2713.6 


Ether extract ...... 


. . .37 


7.4 


59.2 


Fiber ..o ...... . 


. . 5.45 


109.0 
22.6 
34.6 


872.0 


Protein 


. . 1.13 


180.8 


Ash 


1.73 


276.8 


Nitrogen -free extract . . 


. . 8.28 


165.6 


1324.8 



BROOM -CORN OR PROSO MILLET (Figs. 13, 14) 

The Broom-corn or Panicle millets (Panicum 
miliaceum) is not widely known as a farm crop in 
this country, as it is not so useful as the foxtail 
millets. It produces heavily of seed as well as of 
forage, it matures in a short season, and it seems 
to be able to withstand dry weather; for these 
reasons it is somewhat grown in the northern parts 
of the semi -arid regions, where its grain may be 
substituted for corn. There are several varieties, 
distinguished more or less by the color of seeds. 
This plant seems to be the millet of history, and 
it is more popular in Europe than here. 



BROOM-CORN MILLET 



91 



Broom -corn millet was included in an experi- 
ment at the New Jersey Station that was designed 
to test the value as forage of a number of plants 
not commonly used in 
the East, and to com- 
pare their yield, com- 
position and usefulness 
with those generally 
grown . Broom -corn 
millet produced a 
large stalk, with 
but little foliage, 
and when fed at 
the time that it 
seemed most use- 
ful for this pur- 
pose (just when 
headed out) , it 
was found to 
be unpalatable, 
more than one- 
half being un- 
eaten. In com- 
position, it was 
superior (in yield of dry 
matter) to all of the other 
kinds grown at that time, 
including several varieties 
of maize, kafir corn, millet, 




Fig. 13. Broora-corn 
niillfct (Panicum 
miliaceum) , 



92 FORAGE CROPS 




Fig. 14. Seeds or grains of Broom-corn millet. 

sorghum and teosinte. The yield was sixteen 
and two-tliirds tons of green forage per acre, 
which contained 7,637 pounds of dry matter, or 
practically twice as much dry matter as was con- 
tained in the yield of either red or white kafir 
corn. Its composition was such as to furnish 
nearly 700 pounds of protein per acre, or more 
than any other of the plants generally grown, and 
again more than twice as much as the kafir corn. 

From the standpoint of yield of dry matter and 
of total nutrients, the Broom- corn millet compared 
very favorably with the varieties of maize usually 
grown for forage, yet because of lack of palata- 
bility it could not be used for the purpose. It 
possesses promising characteristics, in particular 
its power of gathering plant- food; and further 
experiments may show it to be a valuable plant 
for silage in regions where corn does not develop. 



9-1: FORAGE CROPS 

TEOSINTE (Fig. 15) 

This plant is similar in general habit to millet, 
bat differs in its tendency to stool. It belongs to a 
wholly different species {EttcJilcena, or Beana, luxu- 
rlans) from the other crops discussed in this chap- 
ter, but it is so much like millet in its cultural 
requirements and in its uses that it may be dis- 
cussed with them. By some it is suggested as the 
original of Indian corn. A single plant of teosinte 
will branch and make a very large number of dif- 
ferent plants. So far as plant -food is concerned, 
teosinte makes the same requirements as the other 
very rapid-growing summer plants. Teosinte 
should be planted in rows about three feet apart, 
and tilled. Three pounds of seed per acre is suffi- 
cient. It is adapted only to the far South. 

Yields as high as twenty- four tons per acre have 
been secured, although, because of the low content 
of dry matter, the yield of actual nutriment is very 
much less than from ten tons of corn. 

One ton contains 
Per cent Lljs. 

Water 90.13 . . . 

Dry matter 9.87 197.4 

Ether extract 0.34 6.8 

Fiber 2.69 53.8 

Protein 1.42 28.4 

A^h 1.36 27.2 

Nitroffen-frcc extract 4.06 81.2 



CHAPTER VI 

THE KAFIR COR^S AND DOUBAS 

The genus Sorghum, one of the grass family, 
contains three rather distinct classes of plants : 
(1) The sweet or saccharine forms, the i^lants 
usually known as "sorghum" among farmers; (2) 
the non- saccharine fodder sorghums; (3) broom- 
corn (wholly distinct from the broom- corn millet 
described in the last chapter) . All these various 
sorghums are considered to be forms of one vari- 
able species, Sorglimn vulgare or Andropogon Sor- 
ghum, native to the Old World. 

The non-saccharine fodder sorghums include all 
the douras (spelled also dlioura and durra) , Egypt- 
tian corn, milo maize, kafir corn. There is no one 
name that is now used to designate this group, 
but kafir corn is now best known and is thought 
by some to be destined to become the popular 
class name, although doura is the oldest and 
most attractive name. The kafir corns bear a 
contracted dense panicle or head, in distinction 
from the long, wisp-like heads of the broom-corn; 
some of the sweet sorghums bear drooping heads, 
but they are chiefiy distinguished by their sw^eet 
juice. Of the kafir corns there are two groups, 
— kafir corn proper, with erect, rather long heads 

(95) 




Fij?. 10. Black-biilled White kafir Corn. 



KAFIR CORN 97 

and not flattened seeds; and douras proper, with 
hanging or recurved short and compact heads and 
flattened seeds. Jerusalem corn and Yellow milo 
maize are douras. White milo maize belongs to 
the kafir group. Sgme of the forms are distin- 
guished in Figs. 16 to 21 (all flgures in this chap- 
ter except Nos. 19, 22 and 23 are from Kansas 
Experiment Station photographs). The grain in 
the heads of the kafir corns is useful, as well as the 
fodder, but it is not the purpose of this book to 
discuss the grain production. Forms of doura and 
kafir corn have been known in this country for 
many years, but it is only recently that they have 
come to have real agricultural importance, due 
largely to their adaptation to the hot and dry 
regions of the western country. 

Kafir corn is a valuable plant for dry hot 
countries, and also for the East, since it is a rapid 
grower, producing a large number of wide, luxu- 
riant leaves that are extremely palatable. It serves 
an excellent purpose for seeding with such legumi- 
nous crops as cowpeas, serving as a support for the 
pea, aiding thereby to produce a much larger yield 
of food of higher quality than if either were seeded 
alone. Plants of the same nature are Jerusalem 
corn. Rural Branching doura. Yellow Branching 
doura or milo maize, and Evergreen broom -corn. 

The seed of all these plants is similar to that of 
sorghum and may be similarly treated. It may be 

G 




FOB AGE CBOPS 



Pig. 17. Typical head of Black- 
Hulled White kafir Corn. 



sown broadcast at the 
rate of four to five pounds 
per acre, or planted in 
row^s and cultivated as for 
Indian corn ; the latter is 
the better method when 
large yields are desired. 

Kafir corn is similar to 
sweet sorghum in habit 
of growth. It grows from 
five to seven feet high, 
with a stalk much like 
corn. The leaves are 
heavy and somewhat 
stiff er than those of corn. 
They run from one to two 
and one -half feet long. 
The grain appears on a 
head that reaches a length 
of twelve to sixteen 
inches; but these heads 
are compact, and do not 
spread out, as in the 
sweet sorghums; on the 
mature head there is no 
stem in sight, except at 
the base, the grain only 
being visible. 

The different kinds of 



KAFIR COltN 99 

this class of plants should be seeded the latter 
part of May or first of June. They will make a 
crop ready for harvesting in two to two and one- 
half months. For green forage they should be 
cut as they are just coming in head, in order 
to secure the best yield of succulent and nutri- 
tious food. They harden rapidly after seed be- 
gins to form. In the western states, these plants 
are largely grow^n for the grain, the ground meal 
making an excellent substitute for corn meal. 
While the dried fodder or hay makes a good for- 
age, it possesses no advantages in humid climates 
over crops that are better known and more easily 
handled, as, for example, corn. In regions of little 
rainfall, these crops are of unusual value. 

Composition of Kafir Corn and Allied Plants When 
Suitable for Soiling 

Kind Water 

Red kafir corn . . . . 81.G4 
White kafir corn . . . 83.44 
Rural Branching doura . 85.89 
Evergreen brocm-corn . 77.08 
Yellow-branching doura, 

or milo maize .... 83.19 
Early Learning corn . . 76.43 

The above analyses are of plants grown at the 
New Jersey Experiment Station. For comparison, 
Early Leaming corn was planted at the same time, 
and under the same conditions of soil and manage- 



Fat 
0.63 


Fiber 
4.81 


Protein 

i 
1.81 


Ash 

i 
1.32 


Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 

9.79 


0.65 


4.57 


1.88 


1.44 


8 02 


0.38 


4.71 


1 74 


1 26 


6.02 


0.49 


8.58 


2.02 


1.69 


10.14 


0.57 


5.51 


1.70 


1 49 


7.54 


0.64 


4.93 


1.89 


96 


15.15 



100 FORAGE CIWPS 

merit. The crops were cut when in best stage for 
soiling, and, with the exception of the Evergreen 
broom -corn, were palatable and readily eaten by 
regularly soiled dairy cows. It will be observed 
at once that, with the exception of the Evergreen 
broom -corn, all the crops showed a much lower 
content of dry matter than field corn. 

Nutrients Per Acre in Average Crops 

Yield r>..„ p,.^ Nitrogen- Total 

Kiud per J^'\ f\^- Flit Fiber free nulri- 

acre ni'^"er teiu extract eiits 

'runs LVts. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Red kafir corn . . . 8.34 3,002 302 105 802 1,633 2,842 

White kafir corn . . 8.(58 2,875 32(3 113 793 1,392 2,625 

RuralBranchingdoura 15.53 4,383 540 118 1,463 1,870 3,991 

Evergreen broom-corn 16.66 7,637 673 163 2,859 3,379 7,074 
Yellow -branching 

doura,ormilo maize 19.55 6,573 665 223 2,154 2,948 5,991 

Early Learning corn . 15.26 7,194 577 195 1,505 4,624 6,900 

In this table is shown the yield per acre as well 
as the actual nutrients produced. It will be ob- 
served that the Yellow Branching doura gave the 
largest yield of total fodder, and the Red kafir 
the lowest; the Evergreen broom-corn showed the 
largest yield of dry matter, and the White kafir 
the lowest ; the Early Leaming corn showed the next 
largest yield of dry matter, and a much lower con- 
tent of crude fiber than the Evergreen broom -corn. 
The yield of dry matter, excluding fiber, was 5,690 
pounds for the Leaming corn, and 4,779 for the 
Evergreen broom- corn, a gain for the Leaming of 



KAFIB CORN 



101 



911 pounds, or 19 per cent. On 
the dry matter basis, therefore, 
the only variety that at all com- 
pared with maize was the Ever- 
green broom -corn, which is very 
inferior in palatability and diges- 
tibility. The kafir corns are not 
comparable with corn on the basis 
of yield of nutrients, and are not 
to be recommended except as sub- 
stitutes for corn in climates too 
dry for the latter. 



4 






One point should not be lost '^i^y'^ 
sight of with all these quick-grow- 
ing summer crops, — they are 
relatively exhaustive of the avail- 
able plant- food in the surface 
soil. For example, a crop of eight 
tons of Barnyard millet, which 
fairly represents this group of 
forage crops, will remove from 
an acre in fifty to seventy-five "%^ 
days in round numbers 

50 pounds of nitrogen, 
2G pounds ot phosphoric acid, and 
104 pounds of potash. 



% 



^.f 



The same yield of maize will re- 
move from an acre in eighty to 
one hundred days only 



Fig. 18. Typical head 
of Red kafir corn 



102 



FORAGE CROPS 




45 pounds of nitrogen, 

20 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 

50 pounds of potash. 

This is 10 per cent more nitrogen, 
30 per cent more phosphoric acid 
and over 100 per cent more potash 
removed by the special crops than 
by the corn. The land, therefore, is 
more rapidly and completely de- 
pleted of its available plant-food by 
these summer-grown plants; and 
this accounts for the fact that 
they cannot be successfully 
grown on poor soils, and that 
subsequent crops, that have 
apparently less ability to ap- 
propriate plant- food, cannot 
be successfully grown without 
liberal manuring or fertilizing. 
These characteristics should 
be always taken into con- 
sideration when substituting 
this class of crops for corn in 
forage crop rotations. 

KAFIR CORN FOR DRY REGIONS 

It has been said that the 
Fig. 19^ Yellow TBiio maize, nou-saccharine sorghums are 

one of the doura group. ^ 



KAFIR CORN IN KANSAS 103 

especially adaptable to semi- arid and hot regions. 
It may be well, therefore, to present a brief account 
of these plants to show their value for the interior 
western country. 

The results of experiments at the Kansas Ex- 
periment Station are probably applicable for those 
regions in which the crop is a prominent one, and 
a brief resume and adaptation of the report of 
Professor J. G. Haney,^ of that Station, comprises 
the remainder of this account of kafir corn. 

Varieties for dry regions 

There are many varieties of the non- saccharine 
sorghums, but only three that have come under 
the name of kafir corn. The name kafir comes 
from the name of a tribe of natives of South 
Africa, whose country is known by the same name 
of kafir. Kafir corn is sometimes known as Afri- 
can millet. The three varieties which have received 
most attention are, in the order they were intro- 
duced: (1) The White, (2) the Eed, and (3) the 
Black -hulled White. The last may be easily dis- 
tinguished from the first by noticing that the chaff 
or hull which partly envelops the grain is black, 
while in the first the chaff or hull is nearly the 
color of the grain; hence, the first is called White 
and the last Black -hulled White. In the Red, the 

iPorage and Fodders, Kansas State Board of Agriculture, Report for 1900. 



104 FOB AGE CROPS 

color develops as the seed matures, and at maturity 
is very nearly a brick -red. The kafirs should not 
be confounded with their sisters — Jerusalem corn, 
milo maize or rice -corn. 

All the varieties of the non- saccharine sorghums 
that will mature in Kansas have been tested side 
by side. For the extreme northw^estern counties of' 
Kansas, observation shows that kafir corn is not 
so well adapted as Jerusalem corn or rice -corn. 
The altitude being high, the short seasons and 
cool nights seem to affect the kafir corns so that 
they often will not mature seed. Although they 
always make fodder, and sometimes a good crop 
of seed, they are not so reliable as the others. The 
White kafir corn with some is the favorite for fod- 
der, and all varieties have their admirers, but at 
the Kansas Station all have been abandoned for 
the Black-hulled White. It has proved the heaviest 
yielder hi both grain and fodder, and if there is 
any difference between it and the Red for resisting 
dry weather, it is in favor of the Black-hulled 
White. There is a greater difference between the 
Red and the White in these respects than between 
the Red and the Black -hulled White. 

For the first seven years the Red was grown. 
The Black-hulled White was then tested, and from 
1896 to 1898 the two varieties were grown side by 
side, the Red giving an average yearly yield of 
thirty-seven bushels per acre, and the Black-hulled 




FiK. 20. Typiea, ^ead o£ ^warf „„o „,„,.e, a for™ „. ,,,a,n 

ot the Yellow milo maize. 



106 FOBAGi: CHOPS 

White forty -three bushels per acre. The yield of 
grain per acre by years is as follows: 

Red Black-hulled White 

bushels bushels 

1896 41 48 

1897 41 48 

1898 28 33 

Totals 110 129 

Averages 37 43 

In western Kansas, many farmers raise the 
Red, thinking it a little hardier and earlier. In 
central Kansas some feeders raise both the Red 
and the Black -hulled White, and feed alternately, 
the stock seeming to relish the change. 

Records show the Red to be from a week to 
ten days earlier than the Black- hulled White, but 
this difference is of little importance in central 
Kansas. Kafir corn planted the middle of May is 
ripe the middle of September. 

Soils and conditions of growth 

Kafir corn will grow very nearly within the 
same climatic limits as Indian corn, and under 
ordinary conditions will produce a crop when corn 
does. However, it seems to require a slightly 
warmer climate for its best development. When 
its growth is being held back by unfavorable con- 
ditions, frost comes before it is ripe. It responds 
as readily to good soil and favorable conditions as 



KAFIR CORN IN DRY REGIONS 107 

any other crop; yet, on poor land, and under 
conditions that would not produce a crop of corn at 
all, kafir corn does surprisingly well. It is a very 
strong feeder, having an extended root system 
which reaches deep and wide for necessary 
moisture. 

Dry -weather -resisting qualities 

Kafir corn is the greatest dry -weather -resisting 
crop that can be grown in Kansas. It grows and 
develops in proportion to the moisture which it 
can collect by its extended root system, and, when 
unable to continue growing, it stops and lies dor- 
mant, so to speak, until the moisture does come, 
and then continues its growth. If the rains are 
sufficient, and the frost does not come too soon, it 
will make a good crop, although it has stood com- 
paratively dried up for six weeks. Corn to some 
extent will renew its growth after a moderately dry 
period, but not in comparison with kafir corn. 

Preparation of land in dry regions 

Listing is not generally satisfactory. Being slow 
to start, the plant needs to be up where it gets 
all the warmth possible, which is not the case in a 
lister furrow. And, after listing, if a dashing rain 
comes and runs the soil down in the furrows before 
the plants are well started, there will not be a good 



108 



FORAGE CROPS 



stand. It does not have sufficient force to push 
through soil that has washed down and settled 
over it. Surface -planted land may be affected by 
dashing rains, but it is not likely to be. The 
washing and settling of the soil by rain, of course, 
depends a great deal on the character of the soil, 




Fig. 21. Forms of kaflr corn, and a sweet sorgfhum. — (1) Brown doura; 
(2) Black-hulled White kaflr corn; (.'?) Red kaflr corn; (4) Kavanaugh 
sorghum; (5) Yellow milo maize; (G) Large African millet, or White 
milo maize. 



KAFIR CORN IN DRY REGIONS 109 

as some soils wash and pack more readily than 
others. Listing, however, in the western and drier 
sections is the favorite method of planting, as it 
takes less work, encourages the roots to go deeper 
into the soil, thus better resisting drought. The 
rows should be about three feet apart, and the 
seed dropped four to eight inches apart in the row 
for the western part of the state. 

For surface planting, fall plowing is very gen- 
erally favored. The disadvantages of fall plowing 
are: The blowing of the loose soil, and the weeds, 
which thrive best on fall plowing. Otherwise, a 
good disking or fall plowing furnishes the ideal 
seed-bed. 

Spring plowing should not be done until time to 
plant. The plowing should not be deeper than is 
necessary to turn the ground well and cover trash. 
A very essential feature in the preparation of the 
seed-bed is to compact the soil as soon as plowed, 
so as to hold the moisture near the surface. The 
plowed soil should not be left as smooth on the 
surface as when a roller is used, nor as fine as 
an ordinary harrow would leave it. The day the 
land is plowed, it should be disked, harrowed, 
then rolled, and harrowed again, to make the 
surface fine and compact. The press drill, with 
all the drills left on, is the best implement for 
planting, if done the same day that the land is 
plowed. 



110 FORAGE CROPS 

Distance apart and seed required 

For hay or fodder, it should be planted close, 
and the greatest yield may be secured by broad- 
casting or putting in with a wheat drill, set to sow 
one and one -half bushels of seed per acre. For 
producing grain it should be planted in rows with 
a view to cultivating. For the western and drier 
country, rows should be three to three and one- half 
feet apart, and the seed from four to eight inches 
apart in the rows, while for the eastern areas of 
greater rainfall, better results are obtained by put- 
ting the rows two and one- half to three feet apart, 
and the seed from two to four inches apart in the 
row. For western planting six to seven pounds per 
acre will be all the seed required, while for eastern 
planting ten to twelve pounds per acre will give 
the best results for grain. 

Any drill or drill planters may be used if 
adapted to such small seeds, and to drop them 
the proper distance apart. Perhaps the most prac- 
tical is the ordinary grain drill, tacking a piece of 
pasteboard over all the holes except those which 
will plant the rows at the proper distance. 

Time to plant 

Kafir corn, having a rather low vitality, and 
growing slowly after starting, should not be 



KAFIR CORN IN DRF REGIONS H 



o 



planted until after the ground is well warmed, and 
there is no danger of frost. It comes properly just 
after corn planting, there being no hurry until the 
last week in May, but it should be in early enough 
to have plenty of time to ripen before frost, taking 
into consideration the fact that the plant makes 
but little growth in very dry periods. 

Seeding in dry regions 

As in all crops, it is essential that good seed be 
planted as a first requisite to a high yield and a 
good stand. Kafir corn heats very often, when 
stored in quantity in bins, or when sacked and in 
a dry place, especially if the sack is closely woven 
and there is some dust in the seed. It is always 
risky to trust seed that has been stored in any 
quantity in a close bin, as its germinating power 
may be impaired. Hence, seed that is not fresh, 
or new, should not be trusted. It may even sprout 
in a germinating pan, and yet have a low vitality 
that would give a poor stand. 

The best heads from the best plant in the field, 
under ordinary conditions, should furnish the seed 
for the next year. If the seed is left to cure on the 
stalk in the shock, the selection may be made at 
any time before thrashing; if left on the head and 
stored away in thin tiers in a dry place, until 
needed for planting, good seed is insured. 



114 



FORAGE CROPS 



Cultivation of kafir corn 

The cultivation should be the same as for corn, 
frequent and shallow, rather than deep and infre- 
quent. Harrowing early is almost indispensable in 
order to keep down weeds. After the plants are 
three inches high, they will stand almost any 
amount of harrowing and this may be continued 
until eight inches high. 




■ riii I ^li milii'lillimWIiUliiillilifcN'i 



Kig 24 Roots of kafir corn, sixty days after planting. 



KAFIR COBjY in DRY REGIONS 



115 



Harvesting time for grain 

Kafir corn remains green until frost, and the 
seed does not shatter; so, if grain is the only con- 
sideration, there is no great hurry to harvest; it 
can stand until after frost and the stalk is dry. 
But, generally, the fodder is a consideration, as 
well as the grain, and then the problem is to cut 
when the best results from both may be obtained. 




Fig. 25. Koots of sorghum, sixty days alter planting. 



116 FOB AGE CHOPS 

The longer the fodder stands, tlie harder and less 
palatable it becomes, while if ent too early the 
best yield of grain is not secured. After the grain 
is hardened so that it is difficult to mash between 
the thumb and finger, and there is apparently 
little moisture in the seed, there will be very little 
shrinkage in the grain. This would perhaps be 
called "just past the hard -dough stage." If cut 
earlier, the fodder will be better feed, but there 
will be a considerable shrinkage in the grain. 

Methods of harvesting 

One thing that has kept this crop from being 
more generally raised is tlie problem of harvesting. 
There are a number of methods, and they all have 
their merits. If the fodder is desired for feed, it 
is perhaps best to cut stalk and all, and leave it in 
the shock until dry. The best machine for accom- 
plishing this is the corn-binder, which leaves it in 
bundles of convenient size for handling, and the 
fodder is held together. In the western and drier 
regions, if not j^lanted too thick, it does not 
grow so high that it cannot be cut with an ordi- 
nary grain harvester, and this method is quite 
extensively used. The ordinary corn sled may 
also be used for cutting, and if the seed is to be 
fed with the fodder, this is perhaps the most in- 
expensive. 



KAFIIi COBN IN DRY BEG IONS 117 

111 tliresliing, the whole stalk can be run 
through a coinmoii grain- separator, but this is 
hard on the machine, and as a general thing a 
thrasher will not do such work a second season. 
The fodder is cut and broken up, and, wdiile some 
hold that this is an advantage, it soon loses its 
flavor, and, if; not thoroughly dry, will heat and 
spoil after stacking. Stock will eat the thrashed, 
broken- up fodder wdiile it is fresh better than 
when whole, but in a short time it gets stale. 

When the kafir is bound, the grain may be 
removed by thrusting the heads into the cylinder 
of a thrashing-machine for an instant, and throw- 
ing the fodder off on a wagon. When it is desired 
to take the fodder at once from the field, this would 
perhaps prove the most economical method. 

When planted thick or sown broadcast for hay 
or fodder alone, it should be cut when most of 
the seeds or heads are in the milk or early-dough 
stage. At this time more nourishment will be in 
the stalks nnd leaves; besides, not being so hard 
as when fully matured, it is more easily digested, 
stock eat it more readily, and there is less w^aste. 
A great many make the mistake of cutting too 
early, often w4th the view of getting a second crop. 
The nourishment in any feed is conditioned on the 
process of maturing; the compounds must be 
elaborated and fixed in the tissue before they are 
food. Cutting any feed before the blooming period 



118 



FORAGE CHOPS 



may give a great bulk of material, but it is 
watery; it dries out, the fodder shrinks, and an 
animal cannot eat enough of it to satisfy the appe- 
tite. One crop is all that ought to be expected 
from one seeding, and more profit is made by a 
single crop than two, if labor is counted as worth 
anything. The feed secured by two cuttings may 
go a little farther than the feed secured by the 




b'ig. 2,^. Matured kaflr corn roots. 



KAFIR CORN IN DRY REGIONS 



119 



single cutting, but it will not go nearly twice 
as far. 

Cutting and curing for hay 

As before stated, kafir corn should be cut when 
the seed is in the milk or early -dough stage. The 
cutting may be done with a grain- binder, and 
shocked to cure as small grain. This leaves it in a 
very fine condition to handle when feeding, but is 




Fig. 27. Matured sorghum roots 



120 FOUAGE CROPS 

rather hard on a machine and somewhat expensive. 
The ordinary method is to cut with a mower, and 
the crop should be left to cure well before raking. 
Ordinarily, in the middle and western part of 
Kansas, after being cut and raked, it is put into 
large shocks or small ricks containing from a ton 
to three tons each. This is done with a hay -gath- 
erer, "buck-rake" or "go-devil," and saves a great 
deal of handling. It keeps in excellent condition 
when treated this way, and can be hauled when 
needed. Under ordinary conditions kafir corn will 
be ready to harvest for hay in about 105 days after 
planting, and this should be before frost, as freez- 
ing while green is detrimental; besides, the hay 
w^ill not cure as well in cool weather, and it is 
essential that it be as perfectly cured as possible. 

Yield of grain in hafir corn 

The yield of grain will range from twenty to 
ninety bushels per acre, with an average of about 
forty-five bushels in eastern Kansas; in the 
western and drier parts of Kansas it is smaller, 
though there the difference in yield between katir 
corn and Indian corn is proportionately greater 
than in the eastern parts. At the Kansas Sta- 
tion the average yield of kafir corn for eleven 
years was forty- six bushels per acre, while for 
Indian corn it was thirty -four and five -tenths 



KAFIR COBX IN DRY HUG IONS 121 

bushels. The yield of hay will also vary widely 
from one-half to three tons per acre, according to 
climate, soil and season. 

Storing the grain 

Great care must be taken in storing the seed 
in close bins, in quantity, especially if not w^ell 
cleaned. It settles together so closely that air 
seems to be excluded and heating results. In the 
spring during damp spells, it is often necessary to 
shovel the seed from one bin to another, or from 
one side of the bin to the other, to keep it from 
spoiling. Slightly- heating does not injure it for 
feeding purposes, but destroys its germinating 
power. There is often damage to tlie heads when 
stored in corn -cribs, but it is not so probable as 
in the thrashed grain. 



CHAPTER VII 

THE SWEET SORGHUMS 

The sweet or saccharine sorghums are used 
both for the making of syrup and for forage. 
They are more corn -like in appearance than the 
kafirs because the panicle is more like a corn 
tassel in form. This panicle or head is usually 
loose and open, although it may be more or less 
dense when its grain is ripe. The grain is borne 
in the panicle or tassel, not in ears. The general 
directions for the growing of the kafir corns 
(Chapter VI) apply very well to the sorghums. 

The varieties of sorghum well adapted for 
soiling are Early Amber and Early Orange. The 
Early Orange produces a larger and heavier 
growth, and is a little later than the Early Amber, 
and is thus more suitable for sections in which the 
seasons are long. The soils best adapted for sor- 
ghums are deep, moist loams, or those most favor- 
able for maize, although the crop may be grown 
successfully on light lands if they are well ferti- 
lized. Sorghum seems to be capable of withstanding 
drier conditions than corn, and thus its use is 
increasing where droughty conditions are liable 
to occur. 

(122) 



SWEIJT SOEGHCM 123 

Preparation of soil and seeding 

The preparation of soil for sorghum should be 
similar to that recommended for corn, — a deep, 
well -cultivated seed-bed, but for sorghum the 
crop should preferably be immediately preceded 
by a cultivated crop, in order to free the land of 
weeds. The plants germinate readily, but make a 
very thin and slow early growth, thus rendering it 
difficult t© keep clear of weeds. 

When the crop is intended primarily for forage, 
it may be seeded either thickly in rows, or broad- 
casted. If seeded in rows, from ten to twelve 
pounds of seed per acre are sufficient. If broad- 
casted, twenty to twenty -five pounds will be 
required. The crop should not be planted until 
the soil is thoroughly warmed, and the weather 
likely to be hot, as the plant does not thrive in 
cold, moist weather. Broadcast seeding is not 
recommended except on clean lands, as the weeds 
are likely to start vigorous growth and seriously 
reduce the yield of the sorghum. 

To grow maximum crops the land should be 
well manured or fertilized; inasmuch as it is a 
cultivated plant, which roots more deeply than the 
millets, the nitrogen requirements are not so ex- 
acting. However, the soil should be abundantly 
supplied with available phosphoric acid and pot- 
ash. A good dressing of manure of six to eight 



SWEET SORGHUM 125 

tons, well cultivated into the soil, should be fol- 
lowed by an application of 200 to 300 x)ounds jjer 
acre of a commercial fertilizer containing 

Nitrogen . ..- 3 per cent 

Phosphoric acid (available) 8 per cent 

Potash 5 per cent 



Yield and value 

Sorghum is frequently allowed to grow to a 
height of five to six feet, and then cut and permitted 
to make a second crop. By this method, the largest 
yields of succulent forage are oljtained, ranging 
from eight to thirty tons per acre, although the 
latter figures are exceptional. An average of ten 
tons may be regarded as good, and this should 
be secured under medium conditions of soil and 
in usual seasons. 

Sorghum is a sugar- producing plant. It is veiy 
palatable, and is readily eaten by all farm stock. 
In their immature state, however, the plants do 
not contain a high content of dry matter, being 
similar in this respect to millet, although they are 
more palatable when mature. 

The quantity fed may range from fifty to seventy- 
five pounds per day, in two feeds. The sugar forms 
very rapidl}^ after the heads begin to appear, and 
this formation of sugar, while accompanied l)y a 
considerable increase in crude fiber as the plants 



126 FORAGE CHOPS 

approach maturity, makes the forage sweet and 
encourages the animals to consume the coarser 
materials more readily than is the case with the 
millets or kafir corn, or even maize (except the 
sweet varieties) . 

Sorghum is not well suited for hay, although it 
can be used for the purpose if cut early. It can 
be used for silage with advantage. It can also 
be harvested and allowed to dry, and the seed 
threshed; the dry stalks are then practically as 
useful as corn-stalks, and the seed can be ground 
into a feed which is similar to corn -meal in its 
composition and feeding value. 

Composition and Yield of Nutrients of Sorghum Forage 

Early Orange Early Amber One ton ^" average 

sugar-cane sugar-cane contains ^^^^^^u 

Per cent Per cent Lbs. Lbs. 

Water 83.19 85.19 

Dry matter 16.81 14.81 336.2 3362.0 

Ether extract 0.57 0.51 11.4 114.0 

Fiber 5.51 3.96 110.2 1102.0 

Protein 1.70 1.36 34 340.0 

Ash 1.49 1.20 29.8 298.0 

Nitrogen-free extract . . 7.54 7.78 150.8 1508.0 

SORGHUM IN DRY REGIONS 

Sweet sorghum is well adapted to the special 
climatic conditions of the semi -arid regions, 
although it is generally used in the eastern and 
southern states for gieen forage. The remainder 



S0BGEU3I Ii\ DKY BEGIOXS 



127 



of this chapter is drawn largely from Kansas State 
Board of Agriculture Report for 1900. Figs. 28 
and 29 are Kansan. 

Varieties for Kansas 

Of the large number of varieties, those found 
to be most desirable in the West are: Folger, 




iff. 29. Field of Orange sorghum in Kansas. 



early; Coleman, medium; Collier, late. The Early 
Amber and Early Orange are very valuable for 
the East. The main points to consider in choosing 
varieties are (1) time of maturity, (2) proportion 
of foliage to stem, (3) sweetness, 



SWEET SORGHUM 129 

Preparation of land 

There is a prevailing opinion with farmers that 
sorglium does not require the care in the prepara- 
tion of soil and its cultivation that is demanded 
for corn. This may be true in part, but the plant 
res]3onds readily and profitably to good treatment, 
and it usually pays well thoroughly to prepare the 
soil before planting. This good preparation not 
only destroys weed seeds, but increases the water- 
storage capacity of the soil, insures quick germi- 
nation and rapid early growth. 

Seeding in Kansas 

Sorghum may be seeded any time that is suit- 
able for seeding corn ; if planted from the first to 
the twentieth of May, it will ordinarily catch 
enough of the spring rains to secure a fine growth 
before the hot and usually dry weather of the 
western states begins. 

When grown for the mature plant, it should be 
planted in rows, about three feet apart, and the 
seed distributed evenly in the row, at the rate of 
one peck to one -half bushel per acre. After plant- 
ing, the land should be harrowed to keep the sur- 
face loose, and as soon as the plant is well started, 
the ground should be frequently cultivated until 
the plant is thoroughly established. While the 



130 FOB AGE CROPS 

young plant is slower than corn to start, and thus 
difficult to keep clean, especially in moist warm 
weather, it grows quite as rapidly, if not more so, 
when well established, and later cultivation is not 
so important. 

Sorghum is usually grown for the making of 
hay, and therefore a much thicker stand is wanted 
and broadcast seeding is practiced. The best 
method of seeding is to use a press drill, sow^ing 
from one and one-half to two bushels per acre, 
sufficient to have the stand thick, like wheat or 
rye, if the best hay is to be obtained. 

Harvesting and curing sorghum 

The crop may be cut for forage when two or 
three feet high, in which case it is possible to get 
a second crop quite as large as the first. For hay, 
however, it is better to let the plant reach a more 
mature stage, so the seeds begin to harden and 
the plants to turn yellow. At this stage, it will 
make more and better feed than if cut earlier or 
later. If the stalks are not more than six feet tall, 
the method commonly used for hay is_ to cut with 
a mower, allow it to wilt, and then, with self- 
dumping rakes, carry enough together to make 
small stacks of 800 to 1,200 pounds. By this 
method, experienced growers find that the least 
labor is involved, and that the product keeps green 



SWEET SORGHUM 131 

and sweet. The time of cutting should be the same 
if planted thinner, except that it should be cut and 
put in shocks, as in the curing of corn -fodder. 

For many sections, sorghum is one of the most 
useful crops of the farm; it is easily grown, resists 
drought, and makes a large quantity of forage that 
is relished by all farm animals. In the South it is 
grown largely for making syrup. It was formerly 
used somewhat for this purpose, even as far north 
as Michigan, before the days of cheap sugar. 

As a special crop, sorghum cannot be recom- 
mended too highly. When properly grown it 
produces from four to six tons of dry feed 
per acre. 



CHAPTER VIII 

MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN 

There is no one crop that is equal to corn for 
forage purposes. If it could be so grown as to 
supply green forage from May 1 to November 1, 
there would be no good reason for the introduction 
in soiling systems of any other plant of the same 
group. The reasons for this broad statement are, 
(1) that corn is adapted to a wide range of soils, 
and thus can be successfully grown for forage 
practically everywhere in the United States; (2) 
it makes the largest yield of digestible dry matter 
per acre, other things being equal, of any crop 
that is now grown; (3) in its immature state it is 
very palatable and is eaten practically clean by 
all classes of farm stock up to the time that 
the grain begins to harden; (4) it is one of the 
least expensive crops to grow, largely because of 
the cheapness of seed; (5) it can be completely 
utilized, either as a grain crop or winter forage 
crop, if not needed as green forage to supple- 
ment pastures, or if the yields are larger than 
needed for soiling; (6) it is the only wholly 
satisfactory silage crop; (7) it is a tilled crop, 
and its use may improve the land, 

(132) 



MAIZE FOR SOILING 133 

CORN FOR GREEN FORAGE OR SOILING 

The choice of variety and method of growing 
sliould be modified to meet the special require- 
ments of soiling. It should be remembered that 
the purpose in the growing of soiling crops is not 
nutriment alone, but rather a combination of suc- 
culence, palatability and nutrients. Those varieties 
that make most rapid growth and develop early 
are, all things considered, more desirable than 
those that give a larger proportion of stalk and 
eai' to leaf, because the shorter period of growth 
enables the gathering of two crops of green forage 
in one season as far north as New Jersey. The 
Rural Thoroughbred White Flint represents a 
type that gives excellent satisfaction in the Middle 
States, as it possesses in marked degree the char- 
acteristics already recommended. The branching 
habit is also well developed ; from three to four 
stalks will sucker from the main stem, thus gradu- 
ally thickening and maintaining the succulent char- 
acter of the forage for a longer period than those 
not possessing this habit. In New Jersey and 
points south, this variety, if planted by May 1, 
will be ready for harvesting by the middle of July ; 
and if another crop is planted at this time, it will 
reach a good stage of development previous to kill- 
ing frosts that occur as early as the first week in 
October. Notwithstanding the possibility of secur- 



134 FORAGE CROPS 

ing two crops, the yields of each are often as large 
as can be obtained from the larger -growing varie- 
ties. 

There are many other good varieties that possess 
in varying degrees the characteristics mentioned 
for this one. As a rule, the flint varieties are 
superior to the dent in the northern parts of the 
country. The smaller, quicker-growing varieties 
of the dent sorts are also satisfactory, although 
requiring much thicker seeding and a longer period 
of 2:rowth. 



fc)' 



Freparation of land 

The yield of the crop depends to a very consid- 
erable extent on conditions that are favorable for 
complete germination and very earl 5^ growth. The 
importance of this point cannot be emphasized too 
strongly. Naturally, the preparation of the land 
and its treatment will depend somewhat on its 
condition and character. In the first place, if 
either clover or grass sod is used, it is generally 
good practice not to plow too deep, which is 
likely to turn up parts of the soil not thoroughly 
mixed with vegetable matter, and not in good 
physical condition. This admixture of subsoil has 
an unfavorable effect on quick and satisfactory 
germination. Therefore, relatively shallow plow- 
ing, — five to six inches, — is preferable. 

Plowing should be performed as early as it is 



136 FORAGE CHOPS 

possible to get on the land, that the soil may be 
suitably compacted before the drying winds of 
spring absorb the moisture. Following the plow- 
ing, the tillage should be deep and thorough, both 
to warm the soil and to make the surface as fine 
as possible. When soils are loose and porous, the 
necessity for deep and repeated tillings are not so 
great as when they are heavy and compact. If 
the soil is not plowed until immediately preceding 
planting, it is likely to be cold, preventing quick 
germination; and should dry weather follow, the 
surface rapidly dries out and the plants will not 
absorb sufficient moisture from the lower layers to 
cause rapid and continuous growth. When the 
crop is planted on land that has not had a cover- 
crop, the recommendations may be modified to 
some extent; a little deeper plowing may be made, 
and less tilling is required to get it into first-class 
condition. 

Manures and fertilizers 

When the aim is to secure as large a yield of 
succulent food as possible, and of superior quality, 
it is absolutely necessary that the plants have an 
abundant supply of plant- food throughout the 
entire season. Therefore, even on good soils, the 
fertilization should be liberal. Manure may be 
placed on the surface in the fall, in which case it 
serves as a mulch during winter, absorbing mois- 



MAIZE FOB SOILIJSO 137 

ture, preventing washing and ensuring a complete 
distribution in the surface layers of the soluble 
plant-food; or it may be applied after plowing 
in spring, providing it is fine and thoroughly 
incorporated in the surface soil. These methods 
will ensure the largest return of the constituents in 
the crop, and they are particularly desirable when 
manures are used that contain but little litter. 
When manure is used, ten tons per acre applied 
broadcast will afford abundance of organic ma- 
terial, containing sufficient nitrogen in available 
forms to supply the early needs of the plant. 

It must be remembered, however, that no 
amount of manure or fertilizer can be substituted 
for early and thorough tillage, as tillage saves 
moisture. This is a matter of the highest impor- 
tance, for without moisture the plant -food cannot 
be dissolved and circulated through the soil. There- 
fore, whatever the method of manuring, the soil 
after seeding should be tilled, preferably shallow 
and as frequently as possible, until the plants are 
too large to permit further work. The fact that 
the plant does not make its most rapid growth in 
any case until warm weather begins, makes the 
necessity for early and large applications of 
quickly available nitrogen not so great as in the 
case of such crops as rye or wheat, or even oats, 
that make their most rapid growth much earlier in 
the season. With corn, the conditions are gener- 



138 FORAGE CROPS 

ally favorable soon after planting for the change 
of organic nitrogen into available forms. 

The corn plant, however, requires a liberal 
supply of the mineral constituents; and while the 
application of manure will carry relatively large 
quantities of these, it is obvious that they cannot 
be so completely distributed as in more soluble 
forms, nor, unless the manure is placed in the 
row, can they be concentrated in such a way as to 
permit the plant to supply its needs easily and 
rapidly. Therefore, in addition to manures, a fer- 
tilizer rich in minerals is generally desirable. A 
fertilizer carrying 1 per cent of nitrogen, 12 of 
phosphoric acid and 10 of potash (made by mixing 
250 lbs. ground bone, 500 lbs. acid phosphate, 250 
lbs. muriate of potash), applied at the rate of 
400 pounds per acre, will meet the requirements 
for minerals even under unfavorable conditions. 
This fertilizing, while seemingly heavy, is not 
more than should be applied, because the object is 
to stimulate as far as possible a continuous and 
rapid growth. 

The above remarks are made, of course, with 
eastern conditions in mind. In large parts of the 
West, these heavy applications will not commend 
themselves to farmers in general ; but even there 
the question of fertilizing is coming to be an 
important one, although the main demand may 
be for but one of the constituents. In the long 



MAIZE FOR SOILING 139 

run, the question of applying plant -food is not 
resfional. 



^to-" 



Seeding and tillage 

Methods of seeding vary widely, although it is 
recognized in all cases that the thickness of seed- 
ing should be proportioned to the possible available 
plant- food in tlie soil. On soils that are naturally 
rich and supplemented with the fertility constit- 
uents in avaihd:)le forms, thicker seeding may be 
made than when conditions are not so good in 
respect to food. 

A good method of seeding corn is to plant in 
drills, from two and one-half to three feet apart, 
and the plants from eight to ten inches apart in 
the drill. The quantity of seed necessary to plant 
thus thickly, will range from twelve to fourteen 
quarts per acre, depending on the size of the grain. 
In branching varieties, the plants will be as thick 
as it is desirable to have them with the lighter 
seeding. Seedings thicker than this, either in 
rows or broadcast, as is frequently practiced, 
are likely to cause the crop to suffer from lack of 
moisture, if short droughts occur, even under very 
favorable conditions for obtaining plant- food. The 
size of the stalks under this thick seeding will be 
such as to cause the forage to remain succulent 
aiid palatable until the grain begins to harden. 

As already indicated, when large yields are to 



140 FOBAGE CROPS 

be secured, great care should be observed m the 
couserving of the moisture, and therefore the 
cultivation should begin about as soon as the corn 
is planted. Shortly after planting, the surface 
should be stirred frequently, preferably with a light 
harrow or weeder, until the corn is well started, 
when shallow tilling should begin and be continued 
as frequently as possible during the early period 
of growth. This frequent tilling will prevent the 
undue escape of moisture into the atmosphere, as 
well as assist in the decomposition and nitrifica- 
tion of the organic matter in the soil and manure. 
After the first crop is removed, a second one may 
be immediately planted, preferably without plowing 
but with a deep cultivation with a cutaway har- 
row. The corn stubs will interfere to some extent, 
but not seriously. The reasons for cultivating, 
rather than plowing, when the first crop is removed 
(say the middle or latter part of July), are, first, 
that quite as good tilth can be secured, and second, 
if the land is plowed at this season, it is frequently 
impossible to get the surface layers so thoroughly 
compacted and connected with the lower one as to 
permit free upward movement of water from the 
lower parts of the soil. It is essential, particularly 
in this second crop, that the germination should 
be quick and as complete as possible, and the 
early growth very rapid. The manures and ferti- 
lizers should be applied iu the same way as for the 



MAIZE FOB SOILING 141 

first crop, and the seeding and tilling should also 
be the same. 

Time of harvesting^ and yields 

The time of harvesting maize for soiling pur- 
poses may begin as soon as the plant has fully 
tasseled, or even before, depending on the need 
for succulent forage. The largest amount of actual 
food or digestible nutrients will be secured if the 
harvesting is delayed until the ears have formed, 
and then continued until the glazing stage is 
reached. Therefore, the yields will vary widely, 
inasmuch as the proportion of dry matter in the 
earl^^-cut forage is relatively very much less, and 
the water very much more than when the crop is 
nearly mature. Records obtained at some of the 
stations show that under normal conditions of sea- 
son more digestible matter, and that which is quite 
as palatable, may be secured from twelve tons of 
corn cut at the glazing stage, than would be 
secured in fifteen tons or more harvested before or 
about the time the plant is coming in tassel. So 
the yields may vary by the common, though not 
proper, standards of reckoning; and the fact that 
a crop will yield fifteen or even twenty tons of 
forage, as is frequently stated, is no indication 
that such crop is superior in content and value of 
total nutrients to one that yields twelve tons. 

It is not desirable to prolong the feeding of the 



142 FORAGE CROPS 

green forage until the ears have matured, as the 
tendency of the animals will be to eat the ears in 
preference to the other parts of the forage, and 
the master cows will appropriate an undue pro- 
portion and possibly be injured by an excessive 
supply, particularly if the forage is distributed in 
the field. For soiling, the forage should preferably 
be used before the grain has hardened. 

Composition and value of crop 

Corn in its best stage for green forage contains, 
on the average, and for all varieties, 20 per cent 
of dry matter. This dry matter is nuich richer in 
carbohydrates than wheat or rye forage. There- 
fore, so far as total nutriment is concerned, it is 
much superior to these crops, as well as to the 
millets, sorghums or kafir corn. That is to say, a 
larger proportion of feed in a succulent and 
digestible form is contained in a smaller amount 
of forage. Usually from forty -five to fifty pounds 
per day will supply the needs for roughage, as 
compared with fifty to seventy -five pounds of 
millet or either saccharine or non- saccharine sor- 
ghums. 

Corn can be utilized through a longer period 
than any other crop. Therefore, the plantings 
should be made at different times; and as any 
one seeding can be used for a period of fifteen to 



SWEET CORN 143 

twenty -five days, the plantings should be made 
two or three weeks apart. Of course, a similar 
succession may be obtained by the use of the 
early -maturing and the late -maturing varieties, 
but the later varieties do not make so good green 
forage as the early ones. 

Composition of Thoroughbred White Flint Corn (Green) 





Per cent 


One ton 

contains 

Lbs. 


Average 

acre yield 

furnishes 

Lbs. 


Fodder 
corn, all 
varieties 
Per cent 


One ton 

contains 

Lbs. 


Average 

acre yield 

furnishes 

Lbs. 


Water . . . 


80.27 


. . 


. . . 


79.30 


. . . 




Dry matter . 


19.73 


394.6 


3946.0 


20.70 


414.0 


414.0 


Ether extract 


0.62 


12.4 


124.0 


0.50 


10.0 


100.0 


Fiber . . . 


3.78 


75.6 


756.0 


5.00 


100.0 


1000.0 


Protein . . 


1.65 


33.0 


330.0 


1.80 


36.0 


360.0 


Ash .... 


0.86 


17.2 


172.0 


1.20 


24.0 


240.0 


Nitrogen-free 














extract . . 


12.82 


256.4 


2564.0 


12.20 


244.0 


2440.0 



The yield of the Thoroughbred White Flint has 
ranged, at the New Jersey Station, from ten to fif- 
teen tons per acre, with an average of about ten 
tons, containing 20 per cent of dry matter. Two 
crops of ten tons each would yield about four tons 
of dry matter per acre of a highly digestible and 
very satisfactory forage. 

SWEET CORN FOR GREEN FORAGE 

Owing to the very palatable nature of sweet 
corn, it is frequently recommended for green for- 
age, If suitable varieties ^i-e chosen and planted 



144 FORAGE CROPS 

at the proper time, it is a very useful crop, al- 
though the experience of careful experimenters 
shows that, on the whole, the yield of feed is 
relatively very much less than from the regular 
field varieties, the range being from four to ten 
tons per acre, with an average of about six tons. 
A variety of sweet corn that gives a satisfactory 
yield is rather slower in development than other 
corn, owing largely to the fact that the seed does 
not germinate quickly nor the young plants grow 
vigorously until the season is well advanced. Of 
the suitable varieties, Stowell Evergreen is one 
of the most generally satisfactory, since it is a 
large, rank grower, with abundant foliage. It 
should not be planted until the season is well 
advanced, say the latter part of May, for the Cen- 
tral States, and the land should be thoroughly well 
prepared, as pointed out for other kinds of maize. 
When used primarily for forage, sweet corn may 
be fertilized or manured, as indicated for the 
Thoroughbred White Flint, and cultivation should 
be practically the same. 

A great advantage that many dairymen find in 
the growing of sweet corn is that they may sell 
a large proportion of the ears, when the prices 
are satisfactory, and still have a very good for- 
age left, as the stalk remains palatable for a con- 
siderable time after the ears have been removed. 
There is no question as to the superiority of the 



SWEET CORN FOR SOILING 145 

sweet varieties for forage, as the animals certainly 
are able to utilize the nutrients to the fullest ex- 
tent; and because of their extreme palatability, 
they exert a very favorable effect on the system, 
encouraging, apparently, a larger and better use of 
the accompanying feeds, as an increased flow of 
milk usually follows when sweet corn forage is sub- 
stituted for field varieties. Because of the greater 
palatability of the sweet varieties, however, ani- 
mals are likely to overeat. From fifty to sixty 
pounds per head per day should be the limit of 
use; it is important that the distribution in the 
feeding lot should be so made as to prevent any one 
animal from securing a larger quantity than this. 

The composition of sweet corn does not differ 
materially from that of the field varieties, although 
it is more palatable and undoubtedly more com- 
pletely digested. Following are analyses: 

Composition of Sweet Corn 

Average 
Stowell's Average One ton acre yield 

Evergreen analyses contains furnishes 

Per cent Per cent Lbs. Lbs. 

Water 77.90 79.10 ... ... 

Dry matter 22.10 20.90 418.0 2508.0 

Ether extract 0.60 0.50 10.0 60.0 

Fiber 4.50 4.40 88.0 528.0 

Protein 1.80 1.90 38.0 228.0 

Ash 1.20 1.30 26.0 156.0 

Nitrogen -free extract . 14.00 12.80 256.0 1536.0 

Comparison of the average yield of nutrients in 
regular field varieties and in sweet varieties, shows 



146 FOB AGE CROPS 

the great superiority of the former, an average 
yield per acre of field varieties furnishing: 

100 pounds of fat 
360 pounds of protein 
2,440 pounds of nitrogen-free extract 

as against: 

60 pounds of fat 
228 pounds protein 
1,536 pounds of nitrogen-free extract 

for the sweet varieties, or a gain of nearly 60 per 
cent in all the different nutrients. The cost of the 
sweet corn forage is greater, owing to the much 
higher price of seed. 



DRIED CORN FODDER 

An advantage that corn possesses, and which 
makes it superior to practically every other plant, 
is the fact that, if the crop is not required in its 
green stage, it may be dried and used for fodder. 
While it contains a high content of dry matter, it 
cures readily, and for certain classes of feeding 
furnishes roughage that is unexcelled. 

Seeding and harvesting 

The varieties used for fodder may be practically 
the same as those recommended for green forage, 
although the seeding may be slightly thicker, as 



DRIED COBN FODDER 147 

the advantage of earing is not so important. In 
fact, a better qnality of fodder will be secured 
when a minimnni number of matured ears are 
formed. 

The time of cutting will depend somewhat on 
the character of growth, but the largest amount of 
dry matter will be obtained when the maize plant 
is practically mature, and if the seeding has been 
thick enough the curing at this stage can be 
accomplished readily. When there is danger of 
shortage of other winter roughage, corn is often 
planted late to supplement the regular supplies, in 
which case the crop is not always sufficiently 
mature before it is time to harvest. This will 
result in giving a crop that is very rich in diges- 
tible dry matter, but that is difficult to cure. 
However, if it is placed in small shocks, it will 
soon dry out; it should be removed from small 
shocks to large stacks or to the barn before the 
heavy storms of winter begin. 

Composition and value of dry corn fodder 

The composition of well -cured corn fodder is 
such as to make it a most excellent and nutritious 
food, and it is readily eaten by all farm stock, 
especially if cut fine. The amount of dry matter in 
field- cured fodder is about 75 per cent, and it 
is nearly as rich in protein as timothy hay, and con- 



148 FORAGE CROPS 

tains very much less crude fiber. A good crop of 
corn should yield about three tons per acre. 
A mistaken idea is that the thicker the corn is 
seeded, the larger will be the yield of food per 
acre, and in many instances the corn is sown 
broadcast or planted exceedingly thick in the row 
with this notion in mind. While the forage will be 
a little more digestible and a little richer in pro- 
tein under this treatment, the yield of total 
nutrients per acre is usually very much less than 
if planted in the ordinary way and tilled, since the 
thick:- seeded crop will be likely to suffer from lack 
of moisture, and it is much more exhaustive per 
unit of dry matter on the fertilizer constituents of 
the land. It is not a desirable practice to broad- 
cast corn unless for hog pasture, or as catch -crop, 
and even then the advantages are not always 
apparent. 

Siveet corn dry fodder 

As already pointed out, sweet corn is an excel- 
lent source of nutrients, because it does not grow 
quite so coarse as the ordinary field varieties, and 
because it is very palatable and contains a highly 
digestible form of carbohydrates. As in the case 
of other fodders, if grown primarily for dried 
fodder, the seeding should be relatively thick, so 
as not to permit too heavy earing, although the 
presence of ears is not so undesirable as in field 



STOVE B 149 

com. Sweet corn fodder is more likely to mold 
than field corn, and greater care should be exer- 
cised in harvesting"; it should be thoroughly 
cured in the field, and then stored in a dry place. 
If entirely freed from outside moisture, and 
thoroughly air- dried, it may be packed tightly 
in the barn without danger of injury. The neces- 
sity for cutting it fine, when fed, is not so great 
as for other corn, since animals will eat it readily 
without cutting, due to the softer stalk and its 
palatability. 

CORN-STALKS OR STOVER 

Stover is the stalks remaining after a corn crop 
has been harvested of its ears, the crop having 
been grown for the grain. There is great waste of 
stover throughout a large area of the country; it 
is certain that this waste would be saved if its 
food- values were better understood. The coarse 
stover has a high feeding- value, which will justify 
much greater care in its handling and storage. 
The feeding- value of a ton of stalks is more than 
half the value of a ton of timothy hay that is har- 
vested in its best condition. 

Methods ot curing and handling corn- stalks 

Methods of handling stover differ widely in 
different sections of the country. In the eastern 



150 FOBAQE CROPS 

and northeastern states, the corn is usually cut 
and shocked, and when the ears are dry enough 
to crib, the corn is husked and the stalks are re- 
shocked in the field until cured, and then either 
carted to large stacks or stored in the barn. This 
is an economical method of curing and saving the 
crop. In the South and parts of the West the 
practice is merely to "top" the stalk, and the 
leaves and stalk below the ear, with the husks, re- 
main standing in the field. This practice results 
in a large waste of valuable material. In many of 
the western states, only the ears are removed from 
the standing corn and the stalks are not harvested; 
the only value gained from the stover is that which 
may be secured by the animals following the busk- 
ers, and even then probably not one -third of the 
food is utilized. 

Another source of loss of fodder, even though 
tlie corn is husked and the stalks shocked, occurs 
when the shocks are left in the field until they are 
needed for food. By this method great losses 
occur, due to the mechanical removal of the leaves 
by weather, to changes in chemical composition, 
and to the removal of a large proportion of the 
best of the material by wind- and rain-storms; 
besides, the rain and snow soak the outer parts of 
the shocks, and these parts become frozen, not 
only rendering them unpalatable but making it im- 
possible to remove the entire product to the barn. 



152 FOB AGE CROPS 

Methods of using; yield 

The best method of ushig stover is to cut it fine, 
or to shred it and feed the animals liberally, allow- 
ing the unpalatable parts to be used as bedding. 
In this way the best of the feed is utilized and the 
manures are saved and improved. 

The yield of stover will naturally vary accord- 
ing to the variety and the character of the crop. 
The ratio between ears and stovei* is not uniform, 
but with a yield of 100 bushels of ears there is 
usually about two tons of stover, which contains 
about 60 per cent of dry matter or feed per acre, 
equivalent in value practically to a ton of timothy 
hay. 



CHAPTER IX 

CORN FOE SILAGE 

The prime means of utilizing the green corn 
crop is in the form of silage, particularly in dairy 
districts. By this use the largest amount of diges- 
tible feed may be obtained per acre, and in a suc- 
culent and highly palatable form. Since the use of 
the silo became an important question there has 
been very great improvement in the growing of 
corn for silage and in its storage. In the early his- 
tory of the silo it was recommended that corn of 
the larger varieties be planted very thickly, and be 
stored before it had nearly reached a stage of 
maturity. The consequence was, that, while large 
crop yields were secured, the high content of water 
and the consequently low content of dry matter 
were detrimental both in increasing the cost of 
handling and the difficulties of its preservation; 
the feed value was not increased, and wastes from 
decay in the silo were very serious. Investigations 
on the growing of corn and ensiling it have 
shown that the general principles involved in the 
growing of forage, as alreadj^ pointed out, are 
quite as applicable in the growing of corn for 
silage as for soiling or for fodder. 

(153) 



154 FORAGE CHOPS 

Varieties of corn for silage 

For the eastern, central west and southern 
states, the larger-growing varieties, as the South- 
ern White, Horse Tooth, Mastodon, or those gen- 
erally recommended by seedsmen, are preferable, 
giving a larger yield of actual dry matter per acre 
than the smaller - growing varieties, if only they 
mature sufficiently in average seasons before frost. 
Farther north, the flints, as Thoroughbred White, 
or the ordinary yellow varieties, and a number of 
the quick - growing dent varieties, are recom- 
mended, because the crop can be more completely 
matured before danger of frost. 

Preparation of land, and seeding 

As in the case of other forage crops, the prepa- 
ration of soil is very important. Early plowing, 
and a deep and thorough preparation of land are 
important in securing a quick and complete germi- 
nation and rapid early growth. Manuring should 
be liberal and supplemented by fertilizers. While 
all this is expensive when large areas are grown, 
nevertheless it is a paying procedure because of 
the very much larger quantity of feed material 
that may be grown per acre. It costs no more, 
for example, to buy land, to furnish seed, to plow, 
and to make the ordinary cultivations for a crop 



MANL^RES FOR SILAGE CORX 155 

of twelve tons tlian for a crop of eight tons; 
proper manuring will frequently make this differ- 
ence in yield, other things being equal. It is rec- 
ommended that manure be applied either in the 
fall or winter on sod, at the rate of eight to ten 
tons per acre, or in spring after the land is plowed 
and previous to planting. There is no crop that 
will utilize to such good advantage the coarse ma- 
nures as corn; it is a great forager, and at the 
season of its greatest demands, when it makes its 
most rapid growth, the coarser organic manures 
are more readily changed and converted into active 
substances than would be the case with such crops 
as wheat or grass, that mature early and require 
a large proportion of their food before changes 
in the organic compounds can take place in the 
soil. 

It is essential, also, in order that the nitrogenous 
material of the manure may be completely utilized, 
that abundance of minerals shall l)e at the disposal 
of the plant. Therefore, a liberal fertilization with 
available forms of phosphoric acid and potash, is 
also recommended. Usually, an application of 
300 pounds of acid phosphate, or its equivalent 
of phosphoric acid from ground bone, when there 
is an abundance of organic matter, and 100 pounds 
of muriate of potash, broadcasted, will very 
materially increase the yield. 

An old practice, which has many points in its 



156 FORAGE CROPS 

favor, is the dropping of fine manure in the hill at 
time of planting. The advantage of this method 
is, til at the oi'ganic substances will ferment quickly 
and warm the soil, and thus encourage a quick 
germination ; and a more rapid early growth is to 
be obtained, as the plant makes a quick start, gets 
away from insects and makes possible an earlier 
cultivation of the land. 

Tillage 

The methods of cultivation have been greatly 
improved in recent years, owing to a more careful 
study of the nature and the composition of the 
plant. While the old notion that cultivation pre- 
vious to planting is the best, is true to some 
extent, tillage has for one of its primary purposes 
the destruction of weeds in addition to the conser- 
vation of moisture, and this is accomplished by 
frequent and deep tilling subsequent to planting 
as well as previous to it. Immediately after the 
crop is planted, the surface should be stirred to 
destroy the young w^eeds in the rows, and to pre- 
vent the rapid escape of moisture. This can be 
accomplished by harrow or weeder. As soon as 
the corn is three or four inches high, the ordinary 
cultivator should be run through the row, the first 
one or two cultivatings being three or four inches 
deep, then gradually shallower, as the plant grows, 



SEEDING OF SILAGE COEN 157 

to avoid cutting the roots, which soon ramify in 
every direction and fill the whole surface soil. 
These feedinc: roots should not be disturbed. 



^& 



Seeding 

The quantity of seed to sow will depend to 
some extent on the variety and the character of 
soil. On good lands, the large -growing varieties 
will probably give the largest yield if planted in 
rows from two and one -half to three feet apart, 
and the plants six to eight inches apart in the row. 
This will require about fourteen to twenty quarts 
of seed per acre, depending on the size of the 
grain. Seedings as thick as this will permit of a 
very considerable setting of ears, although not so 
large a proportion as to make the silage too rich 
in digestible carbohydrates. 

Time of cutting^ and yield 

The best time of cutting is when the ears are 
beginning to harden, and while the lower leaves 
are still green. Of course, the season will influence 
this point to a considerable extent. In dry seasons, 
the lower leaves will become dry before the ears 
have reached the proper stage of development, 
although there will be appropriation of food by 
the plant so long as any green leaves remain; 



158 FORAGE CBOPS 

therefore, the stage of maturity of the ear is the 
best guide as to time of cutting. 

When cut at this stage, a good yield will reach 
twelve tons per acre. This does not seem large, 
yet the crop will carry about 25 to 28 per cent dry 
matter, or an equivalent of over 6,000 pounds of 
actual dry substance per acre, which is greater 
tliau can be produced by any other cereal crop. 
When nnich larger yields of dry matter than this 
are reported, the probabilities are that it is pro- 
duced on a smaller area specially treated, or in an 
exceptional season, or under unusual conditions of 
soil and climate. The reported average yields of 
twenty, twenty -five and thirty tons per acre, which 
are often noted, are evidently based on forage 
containing very nnicli less dry matter. When it is 
remembered that it is a question not of tonnage of 
silage com, but of dry substance that is involved, 
the grower should not base his expectations of 
feed production on statements of extraordinary 
yields, as he will surely be disappointed. 

If a crop has become too dry to go into the silo 
in the best condition, the wetting of it may help 
somewhat to preserve the silage, but it must be 
kept in mind that water cannot take the place of 
the natural juices and the activity of living cells. 
If leaves and stalks have become dry, the cells 
have become filled with air and the adding of 
water can only partly displace it. The chief help 



unsilijVG corn 159 

of water is in softening the tissues, and in aidiiig 
it to pack more closely. This method is often used, 
however, and, if the conditions in other respects 
are favorable, good silage results. 

Frosts often come earlier than usual, and tlie 
corn is frozen before it can be ensiled. When this 
happens, it is best to cut the corn as soon as pos- 
sible thereafter, and before the leaves are entirely 
dry, cutting in rather large heaps, so that it will 
not dry out too rapidly in the field. By care in 
these respects, frozen corn can be fully utilized 
for silage. 

Storage in the silo 

In the ensiling of corn, great progress has 
been made, chiefly in the form and construction of 
the silo. It has been demonstrated that the one 
crucial point in the saving of corn in a silo, is that 
the product shall be put in a building or receptacle 
that is practically air-tight. A round structure is 
more easily made tight and it presents the least 
friction against proper settling and packing. It 
may be made of staves, or frame, or brick, or 
stone, or of any material that will accomplish the 
purpose, namely, the prevention of the access of 
air. Square silos cannot be so tightly constructed, 
and the penetration of air when the silo is open is 
greater. It is impossible to pack closely in the 
corners. 



160 FORAGE CROPS 

While the various styles of silos here mentioned 
may all be good, there are several objections to 
stave silos that are intended to be permanent 
buildings out-of-doors. The staves are liable to 
shrink and the hoops to loosen when the silo is 
empty. In many instances, they are blown down 
in high winds, and even if not blown down they 
are racked and get out of plumb. It is also diffi- 
cult securely to anchor a permanent roof, and to 
connect permanently the staves with the founda- 
tion. It does not pay, in the long run, to make 
cheap staves silos. An all -wood frame round silo 
is a type that has given excellent satisfaction, 
especially when care has been given to securing a 
good lining, which can be accomplished only when 
it has a sufficient diameter to permit of " springing" 
the lining boards in place, rather than to have the 
lining perpendicular. There should be at least 
three layers of the wooden lining, with paper 
between, the first nailed on the studs, then a 
lining of tough building-paper; the second layer 
nailed so as to break joints, and another lining of 
paper; and the third nailed, breaking joints again. 
To prevent the decay of the inside lining, it should 
preferably be treated with a mixture of gasolene 
and coal tar, rather than paint. This preserves 
the wood, to some extent prevents the entrance of 
moisture, and is not brushed off by the pressure 
of the silage as paint is likely to be, 



FILLING THE SILO 161 

As to cutting and filling, there has also been 
considerable gain in our knowledge and practice. 
It is now thought that the finer the corn is cut or 
shredded, the better, primarily because there is 
more even distribution of the parts of the ears and 
stalks, and because the finer the material is cut the 
more readily and evenly will the settling take 
place, thus again preventing the ready access of 
air. It has been demonstrated, also, that the neces- 
sity of very rapid filling of the silo, and the sub- 
sequent i^ressure, are not such important consid- 
erations as was formerly supposed. 

Corn may be ensiled at the convenience of 
the farmer, providing the fermentation does not 
proceed so far as to cause rotting between times of 
filling. The development of heat in the silo cannot 
be avoided, and does not necessarily occasion 
great loss of substance, although fermentation 
always results in more or less breaking down of 
substance, and in some loss; in the case of corn, 
this loss is chiefly in the carbohydrates. 

When the work can proceed steadily, from 
eight to fifteen tons per day may be put in small 
and medium- sized silos, but, as already indicated, 
the silage should not stand more than two days 
between successive fillings. The importance of 
thoroughly compacting silage at the time of filling 
the silo is not usually sufficiently well understood. 
The thorough tramping not only enables a much 



162 



FOBAGE CROPS 



larger quantity of silage to be put in, but it expels 
at once a very large volume of air, which, if 
allowed to remain, prolongs the changes. It should 
be tramped well around the sides because the 
lateral pressure of the silage tends to develop fric- 
tion against the w^alls, which prevents its settling. 
In building a silo, it should be as deep as it is 
practicable to make it. The advantages of a deep 
silo are that the largest quantity of feed per cubic 



*Table Giving the Approximate Capacity of Cylindrical 
Silos for Well-Matured Corn Silage, in Tons 



® 

CM 


Inside diametei- in feet 


P. 


15 

58.84 


16 
66.95 


17 


18 


19 
94.41 


20 
104.6 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 
]0:!.4 


26 


20.. 


75.58 


84.74 


115.3 


126.6 


138.3 


150.6 


176.8 


21.. 


02.90 


71.56 


80.79 


90.57 


100.9 


111.8 


123.3 


135.3 


147.9 


161.0 


174.7 


189.0 


22.. 


67.35 


76.52 


86.38 


96.84 


107.9 


119.6 


131.8 


144.7 


158.1 


172.2 


186.8 


202.1 


23.. 


71.73 


81.61 


92.14 


103.3 


115.1 


127.5 


140.6 


154.3 


168.7 


183.6 


199.3 


215.5 


24.. 


70.12 


86.61 


97.78 


109.6 


122.1 


i:!5.3 


149.2 


163.7 


179.0 


194.9 


211.5 


228.7 


25.. 


80.02 


89.64 


103.6 


116.1 


129.3 


143.3 


158.0 


173.4 


189.5 


206.4 


223.9 


242.2 


26.. 


85.45 


97.23 


109.8 


123.0 


137.1 


151.9 


167.5 


183.8 


200.9 


218.8 


237.4 


256.7 


27.. 


90.17 


102.6 


115.8 


129.8 


144.7 


100.3 


176.7 


194.0 


212.0 


230.8 


250.5 


270.9 


28.. 


94.99 


108.1 


122.0 


136.8 


154.4 


168.9 


186.2 


204.3 


223 3 


243.2 


263.9 


285.4 


29.. 


99.92 


113.7 


128.3 


143.9 


100.3 


177.6 


195.8 


214.9 


234.9 


255.8 


277.6 


300.2 


30.. 


105.0 


119.4 


134.8 


151.1 


168.4 


186.6 


205.7 


225.8 


246.8 


268.7 


291.6 


315.3 


31.. 


109.8 


124.9 


141.1 


158.2 


176.2 


195.2 


115.3 


236.3 


258.2 


281.8 


305.1 


330.0 


32.. 


115.1 


135.9 


147.8 


165.7 


184.6 


204.6 


225.5 


247.5 


270.5 


294.6 


319.6 


345.7 



In this table the horizontal lines give the number of tons of silage held by a 
silo having the depth given at the head of the eolnmn. 

* Bulletin No. 83, of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station. 



CUTTING SILAGE CORN 1G3 

foot can be stored; the silage packs tighter and 
loss is prevented at the surface when feeding ; and 
wlien closely tramped against the wall, air is 
excluded and the silage keeps better than when 
it is shallow. 

The quantity of silage that may be stored in a 
silo increases in a higher ratio than the depth 
increases; a silo thirty- six feet deep will store 
nearly five times as much as one twelve feet deep. 

Cutting corn for the silo may be done either by 
hand or by the "self-binder." When the crop is 
large enough, the latter is preferable, because a 
team may do the cutting late in the afternoon or 
early morning, and thus reduce the number of men 
needed. Besides, the binding of the corn makes 
it much easier to handle, both in loading and in 
feeding. There are a number of excellent silage 
cutters. Tlie mistake commonly made by farmers 
is in getting those that are too small ; it is better 
to have a cutter a little larger than is needed. 
Few should have cutting blades less than fourteen 
inches long. It is also very important that the 
power to drive the cutter should be considerably 
in excess of its guaranteed capacity; especially is 
this the case when blowers are used, instead of 
carriers, as it is important to have not only a high 
speed but a steady power. 

After the silo is filled, the top should be 
covered with earth or other material, which will 



164 FOB AGE CHOPS 

pack tightly, so as to prevent the ingress of air. 
Many farmers recommend the thorough wetting 
of the surface, a light covering of soil, and the 
seeding of oats, as the cheapest and surest way 
to make the silo tight. While there is consider- 
able loss under the very best methods of handling 
and packing the corn in the silo, chiefly falling on 
the carbohydrate group, these losses have been 
shown to be no greater than those which take place 
in the common handling of the corn after it has 
been cut and husked. The changes in the silo, 
other than direct losses of carbohydrates, are due 
chiefly to modifications in the nitrogenous nutri- 
ents, the albuminoids being changed into other 
forms, even though the feed value is not seriously 
reduced. 

In the construction of the winter silo, the size 
should be so adjusted to the number of cattle as to 
allow a removal of about two inches of the surface 
per day. In the summer silo there should be a re- 
moval of three to four inches, otherwise the heat- 
ing or fermentation which begins as soon as the 
surface layer is removed, will result in consider- 
able changes, and consequent reduction in the 
food value of the silage. What is termed "sweet 
silage" is possibly a misnomer, although there is 
great difference in the composition of silage made 
and used under the conditions here outlined. The 
development of acid is very rapid, if the air is 



FEEDING OF SILAGE 165 

allowed to come in contact with the silage for 
reasonably short periods. 

The amount of silage to feed 

The quantity of silage to feed should be regu- 
lated to some extent by the kind of silage and the 
size of the animals. It should never serve as the 
exclusive food, \mi mainly to supply carbohydrate 
roughage. From thirty to thirty -five pounds per 
day, containing say 28 to 30 per cent of dry 
matter, are sufficient for an animal of 1,000 
pounds live weight. The feeding of silage should 
be accompanied, of course, b}^ the use of the 
proper fine or concentrated feeds, and preferably 
with a little dry material, as cut corn-stalks or 
hay. When fed in this way, the results are alto- 
gether good. 

There have been no genuine investigations 
showing that silage causes any injury, when 
properly fed, or is in any way deleterious to 
the health of the animals, or unfavorably affects 
milk, butter or cheese. On the contrary, the 
health of animals in winter is usually better under 
the use of the succulent food, and the returns per 
unit of dry matter for silage used in the dairy, 
compared with the dry fodder corn, are about 12 
per cent greater. These results have been secured 
in actual experiments to determine the relative 



1G6 FORAGE' CROPS 

value of the two kinds of forage. There is no 
question, therefore, of the value of this method of 
preserving corn for food. Whenever farmers have 
a sufficient number of dairy, beef or young cattle 
to warrant the building of a silo, there will be no 
question as to the advantage of the system. 

The gains in the making of silage over the 
using of the grain and stover, are, (1) the preven- 
tion of mechanical losses in the harvesting of the 
corn; (2) the advantage of the removal of the 
entire crop at one time, so as to permit of a more 
rapid growth and development of cover- crops, 
which are so important in the conservation of 
fertility; (3) reduction in actual cost of labor 
per unit of feed obtained, which will result when- 
ever farmers are equipped for the rapid handling 
of large quantities of material in a short time. 
The silo is as much a part of the equipment of 
daily farms in the North and East, as the corn- 
crib is of the farms of the West. 



Composition 


OF Corn Fodder 


AND Sir 


.AGE 






Dried 


One ton 




One ton 




On 


e ton 


fodder 


pontiiins 


Stover 


eont;iins 


Sil.ige 


eoi 


1 tains 


Per cent 


Lbs. 


Per pent 


Lbs. 


Per cent 




Lbs. 


Water . . . . 42.20 


. . 


40.50 


. . 


79.10 


. 


. 


Dry matter . 57.80 


1,156 


59.50 


1,190 


20.90 




418 


Ether extract. 1.60 


32 


1.10 


22 


0.80 




16 


Fiber .... 14.30 


286 


19.70 


394 


6.00 




120 


Protein ... 4 50 


90 


3.80 


76 


1.70 




34 


Ash 2.70 


50 


3.40 


68 


1.40 




28 


Niti'O^en-free 














extract . . 34.70 


694 


31.50 


630 


11.00 




220 



CHAPTER X 

LEGUMINOUS FORAGE CROPS 

EvEEY farmer is now familiar with the group 
of leguminous crops. This group deserves even 
more attention than it is now receiving, because of 
the relations of the plants to nitrogen. The plants 
belonging to the legume family include the various 
clovers, peas and beans. All these plants have a 
source of supply of plant -food that is not acces- 
sible to most other plants, particularly not to the 
cereal plants. It is well known that after a crop 
of clover the land, as a rule, produces a better 
growth of corn, oi* other cereals, than when such a 
crop follows a grain or a grass crop. It was thought 
for a long time that this improvement in land was 
due to the greater proportion of root substance in 
the surface soil, because the plants root deep and 
gather food from the lower layers, storing it in 
the thickened roots. The soil improvement was 
not attributed to their power of gathering nitrogen 
from the air until careful experiments showed that 
the soil nitrogen was not consumed but rather in- 
creased by their growth. The fact that clover 
gives better returns as a stock feed than an equiva- 
lent weight of timothy was also known for a long 

(167) 



168 FOBAGE CHOPS 

time, and investigation of tlie composition of 
the two showed that this difference was due to a 
larger proportion of nitrogenous substance in the 
clover than in the timothy. 

It is now known that the individual members of 
this group of plants possess the peculiar property 
of being able to secure the important element ni- 
trogen, in part, at least, from the air. Therefore, 
they may not need nitrogenous fertilizers after they 
are well established, and they may add to the 
nitrogen content of the soil when they are returned 
to the earth. The advantage of leguminous ci'ops 
to the feeder lies in the fact that the plants 
themselves contain a larger proportion of nitroge- 
nous matter than those of the grass family, and 
thereby may be used to supplement other foods 
and to reduce bills for purchased and concentrated 
feeds. One can more profitably utilize the carbo- 
hydrates usually contained in excess in other 
plants; and he is relieved of some of the necessity 
of })urchasing nitrogenous fertilizers to increase 
the growth of the cereal crops. 

Soil inoculation 

While leguminous crops possess this superior 
advantage in the ability to appropriate nitrogen, it 
nnist be remembered that this power is not constant 
for all soils and under all conditions ; but in order 



INOCULATION FOR LEGUMES 169 

that this peculiar function may be exercised, it is 
necessary that there shall be present in the soil 
certain orgcinisms which attach themselves to the 
roots of the plants. The presence of these organ- 
isms is indicated by the formation of tubercles or 
nodules on the roots, which range in size on differ- 
ent kinds of plants from that of a pin-head to that 
of a pea. When these nodules are not present, it 
is usually an indication that the proper organisms 
are absent and that the legumes, in common 
with other plants, must derive their nitrogen from 
the soil; and thus, from the standpoint of accu- 
mulation of nitrogen, they are probably no more 
useful than the cereal or other crops. 

Investigations of the life-history of these minute 
organisms show that there are certain conditions 
unfavorable for their growth and development, 
which explains why they are absent in many soils 
For example, it has been shown that they are likely 
not to be present in soils that are poorly drained, 
and when air cannot penetrate and circulate freely. 
It has also been found that an acid condition of 
soil is not favorable to their growth. They are also 
liable, even if originally present, to be destroyed 
at certain periods if soils are allowed to remain 
uncultivated for some time. In other words, in 
undrained, acid, and light sandy soils deficient in 
organic matter, the organisms are not so likely to 
be present as in those that are well supplied with 



170 FOB AGE CROPS 

organic matter, are neutral in their reaction, and 
are well-drained; and these are the conditions, 
also, that are favorable for crops, providing suffi- 
cient food is present. 

Methods of inoculation 

In view of these facts, it becomes necessary, in 
order to secure the full benefit from the growth of 
leguminous crops, to see that the proper organisms 
are present. This may be readily accomplished by 
inoculation, or introducing the specific organism. 
Soils deficient in these organisms may be supplied 
by using earth from the fields in which they are 
known to be present. Experiments show^ that only 
a small quantity is necessary, if evenly distributed, 
to accomplish the purpose. From one to three 
hundred .pounds of mixed soil, taken from dif- 
ferent parts of the field, will be sufficient for one 
acre, if sown broadcast and harrowed in. The soil 
should be taken from a field in which the same 
kind of crop has been successfully grown. The 
organisms will multiply when legumes are grown, 
will distribute rapidly, and be prepared immedi- 
ately to begin their helpful work. Once the organ- 
isms are present, there is little danger of their 
destruction under good farm practice. If the crops 
that are grown on this area are fed to farm stock, 
and the manure is used elsewhere on the farm. 



I NO CULA TION 171 

the chances are that the organisms will soon be 
generally distribnted. It is especially desirable 
that land be inoculated for alfalfa, if it has not 
grown alfalfa previously. Clover lands are not 
often inoculated. 

It often happens that in the growing of such 
plants as cowpeas and soybeans, the first crop will 
not show the tubercles, but the second one will be 
well supplied with them, indicating that the organ- 
isms may be introduced by means of the seed or 
the dust that goes with it. Some seedsmen now 
make it a practice in harvesting soybeans and cow- 
peas to pull them instead of cutting them, thus 
mingling more or less of the soil with the seed in 
the threshing. 

The organisms of different leguminous crops 
have recently been investigated by the United 
States Department of Agriculture,^ and methods 
devised for providing suitable nutrients for them. 
As a result, cultures have been prepared and 
distributed, together with the food necessary for 
their early growth. The commercial cultures have 
not yet been successful in practice, however; but 
eventually good results may be obtained. 

The grower should remember that inoculation of 
the soil is only one factor in the growth of these 
plants. Good crops cannot be grown on poor, wet, 
or acid soils, or under unfavorable culture condi- 

1 Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin No. 71. January, 1905. 



172 FORAGE CROPS 

tioiis by inoculation alone; the other conditions 
of irrowth must also be made favorable. 



to' 



The amount of nitrogen gathered 

It does not follow that even when these organ- 
isms are present and all other conditions are fav- 
orable, all of the nitrogen in the legume crop has 
been gathered from the air. It has been shown 
that the plants preferably take soil -nitrogen rather 
than air- nitrogen. On good soils containing much 
available nitrogen, or directly well supplied with 
this element, the proportionate amount of nitrogen 
appropriated from the air will be much less than 
when the crop is grown on soils poor in nitrogen, 
even if inoculation has been made. The amount 
of nitrogen gathered by a crop, therefore, cannot 
be exactly determined, altliough, as just indicated, 
it is thought that the usefulness of the legumes as 
a means of acquiring atmospheric nitrogen and 
adding to the stores in the soil, is greater when 
they are grown on soils rather poor in this 
element. 

It has also been clearly demonstrated that the 
proportion of nitrogen gathered from the air, par- 
ticularly on poor soils, even when the proper or- 
ganisms are present, depends on the supply of the 
other necessary plant- food ingredients. Soils poor 
in nitrogen and uncongenial in physical character 



NITBOGEN-GATHEBING 173 

will not produce a large crop of any leguminons 
plant unless well supplied with phosphoric acid 
and potash. Therefore, in attempts to increase the 
protein supply of the farm by means of leguminous 
plants, it is quite as necessary to fertilize with the 
minerals as it would be to grow any other crop. 
This is entirely reasonable, as the mineral constit- 
uents cannot be secured from any other source 
than the soil and these are quite as essential to 
leguminous crops as to any others, or as the nitro- 
gen itself. 

Kinds of leguminous crops 

The family Leguminosae, or pulse family, is 
very large and it is represented in the flora of all 
parts of the globe. Some of the legumes are trees, 
as locusts, red-bud, yellow-wood; others are 
bushes, as furze, broom, lead-plant; some are 
tall woody climbers, as wistaria; others are agri- 
cultural herbs, some of which are grown for for- 
age, as alfalfa, clovers, cowpea, soybean, velvet- 
bean, vetches, pea, and these are to be considered 
further in the three chapters that follow. 




Fig. 33. Oats-and-peas. 



CHAPTER XI 

COMBINATION CROPS WITH LEGUMES 

Various crops may be grown in combination, 
in which leguminous plants occupy an important 
place. The combination crops with legumes afford 
a very perfect balancing of nutrients, they often 
increase the acre yield, and sometimes they afford 
the best means of utilizing land. These combina- 
tions are of three groups: (1) Hardy annual 
legumes (peas and vetches) grown with cool- sea- 
son cereals; (2) tender annual legumes (cow-peas, 
soybeans, velvet beans) growm with warm- season 
cereals; (3) mixtures of clovers and grasses. 
When carefully managed, these combinations give 
the desirable results of each of the ingredients 
and afford another resource to the stock feeder. 

OATS -AND -PEAS FOR FORAGE 

The oats -and -pea crop is grown primarily for 
use as green forage, or for soiling, and it is one 
of the most serviceable in any forage crop rotation, 
supplying food when other crops are not usually 
available, and also making an excellent substitute 
for hay when it is not needed for green forage 

(175) 



176 FORAGE CROPS 

purposes. The object of making a mixture of oats 
and Canada field peas is to improve the qnahty of 
the crops, as well as to increase the yield, making 
both the total quantity and the character of the 
nutrients superior to those that would be secured 
by using either of the crops alone. The variety of 
oats to be used should be a strong and vigorous 
grower, well adapted to the locality and to climatic 
conditions. Any variety that has proved itself 
superior as a grain -producer may be safely used for 
green forage. It is an advantage to select the best 
seed when planting for forage crops, — quite as 
important in the growing of forage as in the grow- 
ing of grain or seed. 

There is wide difference in the varieties of the 
Canada pea. For average purposes, probably the 
Golden Vine is as satisfactory as any, because it is 
more generally grown and the seed is cheap, and 
because a smaller quantity is required per acre. It 
is a medium -early variety. Early varieties that are 
very satisfactory are Canadian Beauty and Black- 
Eyed Marrowfat. Late varieties are Green- Scotch, 
Greenfield and Prussian Blue. These later varieties 
naturally produce a larger crop, as the period of 
growth is somewhat longer. Where hot weather 
comes on early, medium or medium -early varieties 
are superior. It is safer to plant a distinct variety 
than to depend on mixtures of various kinds, 
which are likely to mature unevenly. 



OA TS-A ND-P1]A H 177 

Preparation of soil, and manuring 

Oats-and-peas are usually grown on land on 
which a cultivated crop has immediately preceded, 
although good crops may be obtained on sod land 
if it has been plowed in the fall or very early 
spring and deeply cultivated. The land should be 
well and deeply prepared, in order to furnish a 
deep seed-bed for the peas. The areas best suited 
to the crop are cool, moist lands. When the 
weather is cool and moist, the season is much 
more favorable than when hot and dry. 

This crop responds very favorably to applica- 
tions of yard manures. In fact, there is no other 
manure that will so well or so completely meet the 
requirements; the organic matter contained in it 
aids materially in the development of the soil bac- 
teria, and the soluble nitrogenous and mineral salts 
feed the plants abundantly in the early stages of 
growth. The manures should be broadcasted at 
the rate of eight to ten tons per acre after plovving, 
and thoroughly harrowed into the soil. When a 
smaller quantity of manure must be used, it may 
be fortified by an application of a good fertilizer 
mixture whose constituents have been derived from 
good sources and containing 

Nitrogen 4 per cent 

Phosphoric acid (available) G per cent 

Potash G per cent 

L 



OAT8-AND-PEAS 179 

This may be applied either broadcast, or drilled 
with the seed at the rate of 200 to 300 pounds per 
acre. Owing to the fact that the crop makes an 
early growth, the particular need is for an abun- 
dance of available nitrogen. 

Quantity of seed, and inetliods of seeding 

The quantity of seed used on good soils is gen- 
erally about one and one -half bushels of oats and 
one and one -half bushels of peas each per acre, 
although as thick seeding as two bushels of each 
has been even more successful on well -enriched 
soils. Many variations may be made in the pro- 
portions, however, to suit the various conditions 
of cost of seed, kind of soil and time of seeding. 
Sometimes increasing the peas to two bushels or 
two and one -half bushels, and decreasing the oats 
to one bushel, is practiced. 

The crop should be seeded as early in spring as 
it is possible thoroughly to prepare the soil. The 
earlier the crop is planted, the greater will be the 
likelihood of a perfect crop, as both oats and peas 
suffer in the hot dry days of summer. It is a com- 
mon practice to sow the peas from five to eight 
days earlier than the oats. Many growers recom- 
mend that the peas be plowed -in from four to six 
inches, in order that they may root deeply, and 
thus be better able to resist heat and drought. 



180 FORAGE CHOPS 

Many other successful growers prefer to use the 
ordinary grain- drill for the peas and plant them as 
deeply as possible, following with the oats a few 
days later, and before the peas have sprouted. 
The experience at the New Jersey Experiment 
Station, where this crop has been an important 
one for eight years and where different methods 
have been used in seeding, has shown that it is not 
a profitable practice there to expend the extra 
labor required in plowing- in the peas or in seeding 
the two plants at an interval of a few days. Quite 
as even distribution and as large yields have been 
secured when the oats -and- peas have been mixed 
in the grain -drill, and all seeded together. It is 
important in any case that the seed be distributed 
evenly. 

Time of cutting oats -and- peas 

When seeded as early as it is possible to pre- 
pare the land, the first cutting for green forage 
will be ready in about two and one -half months. 
Because of its good proportion of nutrients, it may 
be used as the exclusive source of food for dairy 
cows, although this is not a desirable practice 
when it is the purpose to keep the animals up to 
full standard of production, as it would require 
about 100 pounds of the forage per day.^ 

The best time for cutting is when the oat- grain 

1 New Jersey Experiment Station Bulletin, No. 130 



OATS-AND-PEAS 183 

is in milk and the peas are forming pods ; at this 
period, the largest amomit of digestible matter 
may be secm-ed. Because of the rather slow 
maturity of the crop, particularly if the weather is 
favorable, a single seeding of oats-and-peas may 
furnish supply for eight to ten days, providing 
cutting begins a little earlier than this, or when 
the oats are just headed out. 

When it is desirable to continue the feeding 
longer, a second seeding is usually made about 
ten days after the first. In ordinary seasons this 
will be ready eight to ten days after the first 
planting. A third seeding made eight or ten days 
later than the second is likely to be ready for use 
relatively earlier, however, owing to the more 
rapid development of the crop as the hot and dry 
weather advances. 

In recent years a plant-louse has made its 
appearance in the eastern and southern coast 
states, and has been a very serious pest, attacking 
the peas and practically ruining the crop. Where 
this pest is present, the later seedings should not be 
made, as it attacks the plants at the end of June 
or the first of July, when early seedings have 
reached the cutting stage, and before later seed- 
ings have reached full development. When 
an abundance of fertilizer has been used, the 
plants are better able to resist or outrun the 
attacks of the insect. 



184 FORAGE CHOPS 

Yields uses, and quality of crop 

The yield varies widely, ranging from six to 
twelve tons per acre. The early cuttings are not 
rich in dry matter, although the average is higher 
than for some other forage crops. The oats-and- 
peas crop gives a relatively higher percentage of 
protein than is obtained in wheat, rye or grasses, 
and it serves a very good purpose as a balanced 
ration. 

This crop also makes most excellent hay, pala- 
table for all kinds of farm stock, and much richer 
in the digestible nutrients than timothy, though 
not so rich in protein as clover. It should be cut 
for hay when at its best for forage, namely, when 
the oats are in the milk stage, and when the peas 
are forming pods. 

A larger yield of dry matter may be secured by 
allowing the two crops to ripen, harvesting and 
threshing the mixed grain crop, grinding the grain 
and using it for feed and using the straw as rough- 
age. The expense of this practice is much greater 
than that of hay-making, and the yield of diges- 
tible matter has been found to be no greater. An 
experiment at the New Jersey Station^ to test this 
point showed that while the cured grain crop gave 
a larger yield of total nutrients than the crop cured 
as hay, the expense of the former method was 

lAnnual Report for 1901, p. 278 



186 FORAGE CROPS 

much greater. The hay cost $8.24 per ton, and 
the oat- and -pea feed, $22.60, and the oat -and -pea 
straw, $6 per ton. The use of five pounds of the 
straw and seven pounds of the oat-and-pea feed 
resulted in 2.6 per cent larger yield of milk than 
fourteen pounds of the hay, although the feed cost 
of milk per hundred was 61.6 cents, when the oat- 
and-pea ration was fed, and 49.9 cents when 
the oat-and-pea hay ration was fed. The experi- 
ment showed clearly that both rations are palatable 
and digestible, and can be successfully used as 
partial substitutes for purchased feeds, although 
indicating the greater economy as a source of 
nutrients of the oat-and-pea hay. Allowing the 
crop to ripen, therefore, is not a profitable prac- 
tice, excepting when labor is abundant and cheap, 
or when it is more desirable to produce fine feeds 
than to purchase them. 

Composition of Oat-and-Pea Crops 





Water 

% 


Fat 

% 


Fiber 

% 


Protein 

% 


Ash 

% 


Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract 

% 


Oat-and pea-green forage 


. 79.44 


0.70 


6.19 


2.04 


1.59 


10.03 


Oats and peas, matured . 


. 17.68 


2.57 


23.76 


9.44 


5.83 


40.72 


Oat-and-pea hay . . 


. 31.27 


1.96 


22.80 


7.00 


5.80 


30.50 


Oat-and-pea straw . . . 


. 9.21 


2.33 


32.83 


4.11 


6.89 


44.63 


Oats and peas, ground . 


. 9.92 


3.81 


10.91 


16.73 


4.72 


53.91 



These analyses are the average of those made 
at the New Jersey Station, where the pea is used 
in larger proportion than is here given, or at the 



OATS WITH pi: AS OB VETCH 187 

rate of two bushels of peas to one or one and one- 
half bushels of oats. This proportion is frequently 
desirable, depending on the relative price of seed 
and adaptability of soil. The forage and hay will 
be much richer in protein than is given in these 
analyses. 

When this crop is seeded primarily to supple- 
ment natural pastures, it is often used as pasture 
rather than as a soiling crop. This is a very waste- 
ful practice, as under the best conditions of pas- 
turage not more than one -third to one -half of the 
actual food will be used by the animals. 

Observations of the effect of feeding of oat- and 
pea forage to dairy cows show that it exerts a 
very favorable influence on the physical quality 
of milk. When farmers are raising their own 
milk and selling it to special customers, there are 
very great advantages in using this crop, either as 
green forage or as hay. 

OATS- AND -VETCH 

The methods or practice used in the growing of 
oats -and -peas apply in the case of oats-and- 
spring- vetch (Vicia sativa) . This crop is not so 
palatable as oats -and -peas and has not been so 
generally used. The chief difference in manage- 
ment is in the quantity of seed used per acre. Thus 
far, the seeding of one and one -half bushels of 



0AT8-AND-VETCn 189 

oats and three -fourths of a bushel of vetch has 
been very satisfactory. The vetch makes much 
more leaf, and is not so firm a grower as the pea, 
but under favorable conditions it will make a large 
yield. It is not open to the disadvantage of being 
attacked by the pea- louse, and thus will serve hi 
combination with oats when later seedings of oats- 
and-peas are found to be undesirable. The method 
of harvesting and feeding are the same as for the 
oats -and -peas. 

This crop also makes an excellent hay, the 
vetch contributing the protein in larger proportion 
and making a food rich in nitrogenous nutrients. 
When the vetch is allowed to mature, it shells 
rapidly, and unless care is used may prove a 
nuisance by volunteering as a weed. 

BARLEY - AND - PEAS 

For late feeding, a combination of barley and 
Canada field peas is desirable, as the pea makes a 
luxuriant growth in late fall and is not injured 
except by heavy freezing; and the pea-louse, which 
is so destructive to the spring- seeded Canada pea, 
usually does not attack the fall -sown crop. The 
quantity of seed should be about one and one -half 
bushels of barley and one and one-half bushels of 
the pea, seeded in the same way as oats -and -peas, 
preferably from the first to the middle of August. 



190 FOBAGE CHOPS 

The composition of this product does not differ 
materially from that of oats -and -peas, although, 
owing to the fact that it does not mature, it 
is naturally a little richer in protein than the 
oats -and -peas. It can be fed in the same way, 
except that a smaller quantity should be used, — 
from forty to fifty pounds per day. Where this 
crop can be successfully grown it is very useful, 
as it lengthens the soiling period by at least two 
weeks. 

WARM -SEASON COMBINATIONS 

In addition to such combinations of soiling 
crops as oats -and -peas, oats -and -vetch, rye-and- 
peas, there are others which at times at least are 
advantageous, although experiments have not yet 
been sufficient to determine whether under all cir- 
cumstances it is advisable to use them. The leading 
crops that may be used for these combinations are : 
corn, sorghum, kafir corn and millet, seeded with 
cowpeas or soybeans. The advantages of the com- 
bining of these crops are (1) the production of a 
more nearly balanced ration; (2) the larger yield 
that may be secured per acre, when all conditions 
are favorable; (3) the greater certainty of a paying 
crop when conditions are unfavorable for one or 
the other alone. 

For summer soiling, the advantages of growing 
kafir corn with cowpeas or soybeans, or of barn- 



WAI13I- SEASON COMBINATIONS 193 

yard millet with cowpeas, are usually abundantly 
apparent. With the latter combination, unless the 
season is very warm, the millet will mature earlier 
than the cowpeas, yet there is the advantage that 
the corn or millet supports the cowpea, making the 
cowpea easier to harvest, prolonging the period of 
profitable use, and providing a much better ration. 
Very excellent yields have been secured with these 
combinations. Kafir corn or millet may be utilized 
for a longer period than if either the kafir corn or 
millet were used alone, which is at times a matter 
of very considerable importance. 

In the case of maize -and -cowpeas or soybeans, 
the advantages of the combination are usually not 
so apparent, although in certain regions the com- 
binations have been found to be very desirable, 
and have been recommended particularly for silage, 
since the combined crop provides a practically 
balanced ration for winter feeding. The trouble is 
that if a sufficient quantity of nutrients is to be 
provided in a succulent ration made up of maize 
and cowpea silage, a too large quantity must be 
used in order that the animals may secure a suffi- 
cient amount of dry matter. A safer, although a 
slightly more expensive method, is to plant the 
maize -and -cowpeas separately, and make the cow- 
peas into hay. Silage and cowpea hay are not open 
to this objection, as the succulent ration need not 
exceed thirty to thirty -five pounds per day. 

M 



194 FOB AGE CHOPS 

Sorghum -and- CO wpeas, or sorghum- and- soy- 
beans, make an excellent summer forage, providing 
the sorghum is seeded rather thickly and harvested 
before it has nearly reached maturity. 

The quantity of seed recommended for all these 
combination crops is one -half that used when each 
of the crops is grown singly. 

MIXED GRASSES AND CLOVERS 

On most farms in the dairy sections of the 
country, timothy, red -top and clovers (both red 
and alsike) , and timothy and clovers are two mix- 
tures generally used for pasture and ha}^- making. 
When the purpose of growing forage crops is pri- 
marily to supplement natural pastures, this crop 
of mixed grasses and clovers serves a most excel- 
lent purpose in supplying the need in emergencies. 
In many localities, the grasses are seeded in the 
fall with field crops, as with wheat or rye, and 
the clovers are seeded in early spring, either with- 
out covering or with light harrowing. 

When immediate and large returns are impor- 
tant, seedings may be made without cover- crop in 
the late summer or early fall. The best time of 
seeding has been found to be from the middle of 
August to the first of October, depending on the 
locality. At the New Jersey Experiment Station, 
jnany tests have been made as to methods and 



MIXED MEADOWS 195 

times of seeding, and it has been found that for that 
locality (which would probably be true for a large 
part of the East) this method of seeding in late 
summer without nurse -crop is a very desirable 
one, as the seedings may be made after other crops 
are removed, as, for example, after potatoes, oats, 
or even after the same grass mixture when the 
land has been plowed immediately after the hay 
has been removed, and cultivated frequently 
before seeding. It is not necessary that the land 
shall have been planted wdth wdieat or rye, as is 
the general custom; the seedings are more liable 
to take when this old practice is not followed. 

Tlie preparation of soil, and seeding 

Frequent and thorough cultivation of land dur- 
ing the entire preceding summer, accompanied by 
heavy fertilization, is strongly recommended, al- 
though this is not found to be feasible by all 
growers; the principle is correct, however, and 
whenever the areas are not too large and w^hen 
the farmer has al)undant capital for the purchase 
of fertilizers, it may be profitably followed. In 
general, however, the conditions do not warrant 
such an expensive mode of preparation and seed- 
ing, and a system has been developed at the New 
Jersey Station which is entirely practicable under 
what may be regarded as more extensive condi- 




Fig. 41. Corn-and-cowpeas for silage, the cowpeas planted tive days 

after the coru. 



MIXED MEADOWS 197 

tions, not requiring so large an outlay of labor and 
money. By this method the land from which crops 
are removed early enough, is plowed in July and 
thoroughly and frequently tilled until about the 
middle of August; this frequent tillage destroys 
many weed seeds, ensures a thorough division of 
the soil particles, and conduces to the unlocking 
of plant- food and encouraging the growth and de- 
velopment of soil bacteria. When the main pur- 
pose in the use of either of these mixtures of 
grasses and clovers is to secure hay, and to have 
the land remain in permanent meadow, the use 
of yard manures immediately before seeding is 
not generally desirable, owing to the danger of 
adding weed seed, although the thickness of the 
seeding of grasses and the treatment of the fields 
in respect to top-dressing will overcome this 
danger to some extent. 

When it is found desirable to re-seed, it is not 
necessary that the sod be planted with other crops, 
but it may be at once re -seeded with the grasses, 
provided it is plowed immediately after the first 
cutting has been removed, and thoroughly tilled in 
the months of July and early August. This prac- 
tice will permit a continuous growth of a crop that 
is suitable for green forage, although grown pri- 
marily for pasture and for hay. 

The quantity of seed required will depend to 
some extent on the character of the land and its 



198 FORAGE CROPS 

preparation. When the land is naturally good and 
well prepared, the quantity of seed may be rela- 
tively large; but if it is poor and in bad con- 
dition, a large quantity of seed will not encour- 
age a proportionately heavy growth, as a great 
number of young plants will perish because of the 
lack of a proper medium for their growth and 
nourishment. The following seed mixture has been 
used with very great success, and as a general 
grass and clover mixture for dairy farms can be 
strongly recommended, because it is one for which 
the seed can be readily obtained, is not expensive, 
and possesses a sufficient number of distinct plants 
to permit of complete occupation of the land: 

Timothy 8 pounds 

Red clover 4 pounds 

Alsike 2 pounds 

Cleaned red -top 2 pounds 

This mixture should be sown at the rate of 
twenty to thirty pounds per acre, — not less than 
twenty pounds on medium soil, and as much as 
twenty- four to thirty pounds or even more on very 
good soil. If seeded in the middle states any time 
from the middle of August to not later than Sep- 
tember 20, this mixture of grasses and clovers will 
make sufficient growth in fall to cover the ground 
completely, and prevent the starting of weeds, and 
under good climatic conditions will successfully 
survive the winter. 




: jt y -. *y*fe 



MIXED MEADOWS 201 

Manures and fertilizers 

It has been shown by experiments that a liberal 
supply of plant -food from artificial sources is 
quite as serviceable in supplying the plants with 
their needs as a supply from natural manures, 
provided there is sufficient organic matter in the 
soil. If the cost of actual plant -food is taken into 
consideration, the increase in crop may be secured 
at a lower cost with the artificial than with the 
natural manures. A primary consideration is that 
the land shall be in good tilth, and the preparation 
and cultivation made as previously recommended; 
and there should be an occasional application of 
lime, — at least once in five years, — at the rate of 
twenty- five bushels per acre. This general prac- 
tice will greatly improve the soil in physical char- 
acter, and prevent to a large extent the compacting 
which would be likely to follow a continuous use 
of chemical fertilizers, without the direct addition 
of vegetable matter. Under these conditions the 
following recommendations as to fertilizers are 
made. In summer, while the land is being pre- 
pared, a few days previous to seeding, apply 
broadcast a fertilizer rich in minerals, as 

Ground bone 150 pounds 

Acid phosphate 600 pounds 

Muriate of potash 250 pounds 

This mixture should be applied broadcast at the 
rate of 300 to 500 pounds per acre ; and at time of 



202 FORAGE CROPS 

seeding a further application should be made of 
300 pounds per acre of a commercial fertilizer, 
containing 

Nitrogen 3 per cent 

Phosphoric acid (available) 6 per cent 

Potash 5 per cent 

This will ensure an abundance of the mineral 
elements, and sufficient nitrogen to supply the 
immediate needs of the plant and to encourage a 
vigorous growth in the fall. If the land is in good 
condition, and the plants winter well, a top-dress- 
ing on the first cutting is not usually required, 
although, in order to ensure a good second crop 
or aftermath, it is desirable that the top-dressing 
be made after the first crop is removed, preferably 
of the formula mentioned for seeding down, at the 
rate of 300 to 400 pounds per acre. The second 
season, the crop is likely to be made up largely of 
timothy and red -top, the clovers having disap- 
peared, and a top-dressing should then be made 
early in the spring, as soon as the grass has well 
started, of a fertilizer rich in available nitrogen, 
in order that the plant may have a nitrogenous 
food that it can appropriate rapidly when it needs. 
Therefore, a mixture of 

Nitrate of soda 500 pounds 

Ground bone 200 pounds 

Acid phosphate 200 pounds 

Muriate of potash 100 pounds 



MIXED MEADOWS 203 

may be applied broadcast at the rate of 200 to 
300 pounds per acre. This will stimulate and 
strengthen any weak plants, and provide all plants 
with the nitrates, so essential at this season of the 
year. 

To ensure a large second crop of forage, imme- 
diately after the first crop is removed a further 
application of the top -dresser formula should be 
made, and at the same rate. It must be remem- 
bered that if a rapid and large growth of succulent 
food is to be secured, the plants must be abun- 
dantly supplied with all the essential constituent 
elements; and since the crop is one that does not 
have to be reseeded annually, a very considerable 
increase in the cost of the fertilizer may be allowed 
in lieu of the preparation and re- seeding that would 
be necessary if not abundantly fed and if weeds 
and foreign growths had encroached. 

While the amount of fertilizer recommended 
may seem large to the farmer accustomed to 
extensive practice, trials at a number of Experi- 
ment Stations, notably, Rhode Island (Bulletin 
No. 99, "A Six-Year Rotation of Crops")? ^^^ 
the experience of growers, notably George E. 
Clark, Higganum, Conn., show that if large yields 
of hay or forage (from four to six tons of the former 
per acre per year) are to be secured, this liberal 
use of fertilizers is desirable, for the profits are 
greater. The Rhode Island Experiment Station 



204 FOB AGE CROPS 

finds to be profitable an annual application of 
1,050 pounds per acre of a mixture of 

Nitrate of soda 350 pounds 

Muriate of potash 200 pounds 

Acid phosphate 500 pounds 

Clark recommends, for seeding down, an annual 
application of 400 to 800 pounds per acre of a 
mixture of 

Ground bone 1,000 pounds 

Muriate of potash 800 pounds 

Nitrate of soda 200 pounds 

and two top -dressings of 200 to 300 pounds each 
of an equal mixture of ground bone, muriate of 
potash and nitrate of soda. These larger applica- 
tions, however, assume a much more thorough 
preparation of land previous to seeding than is 
outlined here. 



Values of mixed forage crops 

A crop of mixed grasses and clovers is useful 
for green forage from about June 20 to July 10, 
according to the locality and season. It is one 
of the most palatable and useful of our forage 
crops, making a well-balanced ration in itself, 
and producing a relatively large yield of dry 
matter. 



MIXED MEADOWS 207 

Composition and Yield of Nutrients of Mixed Grasses 
AND Clover Forage 

One ton ^" ^^^v^S^ 

contains acre^yield 

contains 
Per cent ■ Lbs. Lbs. 

Water 75.00 ... ... 

Dry matter 25.00 500.0 4,000.0 

Ether extract 0.75 15.0 120.0 

Crude fiber 7.95 159.0 1,272.0 

Protein 2.89 57.8 462.4 

Ash 1.57 31.4 251.2 

Nitrogen -free extract .... 11.85 237.0 1,896.0 

A good first crop of mixed grasses and clovers 
will yield, on the average, about eight tons per 
acre of a product relatively rich in protein, 
and of a highly digestible character. The second 
crop will range from four to six tons, depending 
on the season. If the clovers are abundant, the 
second crop will be richer in protein than the 
first cutting. The yield of digestible nutrients 
from an acre of this crop will compare fav- 
orably with that of any other crop of this class, 
and it will be well adapted to the purpose. 
Owing to the high content of dry matter in the 
various grasses, the usual quantity used, — fifty 
pounds per day, — will supply a larger portion of 
nutrients than is furnished by the same quantity of 
rye or wheat, and thus reduce the amounts of fine 
feeds required, a very important matter in most 
cases. 

For hay suitable for the dairy, these mixtures 



208 FORAGE CROPS 

are very superior. Yields have been secured, under 
good conditions, ranging from three to four tons 
per acre from the first cutting, and frequently one 
ton and a half in the second cutting, making it 
also a very profitable crop from the standpoint of 
supply of nutrients. It is not recommended that 
fields that are intended to serve as hay should be 
pastured, although the pasture is of excellent 
quality. 

If made into hay for use on the farm, the crop 
should be cut before it matures, if the largest 
quantity of highly palatable and digestible dry 
matter is to be obtained. When the plants are in 
blossom, or immediately after, — if there is a large 
proportion of the grasses, — may be regarded as 
the best time to cut under average conditions. The 
plants harden rapidly after this period, increasing 
proportionately the indigestible woody fiber and 
decreasii]g the digestible protein. Timothy grown 
for market purposes may be cut at a later period, 
for market conditions demand well - matured, 
though not over -ripe hay, and increased yields 
are secured if cut at this later period. 



CHAPTER XII 
ALFALFA 

The leguminous forage plants may be classed 
into three groups: perennials, biennials, annuals. 
Of the perennials, the plant most useful for for- 
age, and the one that occupies the relative posi- 
tion among the legumes that corn does among the 
cereals, is alfalfa, although it differs from corn in 
having a more restricted habitat or adaptability, 
not so readily conforming to a wide range of soils, 
climate or conditions of growth. It should be 
said, however, that alfalfa has not yet received the 
careful attention that its merits warrant, and the 
chances are that a wider study of the plant will 
show that it is adapted to conditions which are not 
now thought to be satisfactory. The chief diffi- 
culty in the growing of the plant thus far, particu- 
larly in the eastern and middle western states, is 
in securing and maintaining a good "stand." 

Alfalfa is not a new plant. It has been culti- 
vated in Europe for nearly two thousand years, 
and is well known in both North and South 
America. It was introduced into California from 
Chili nearly fifty years ago, and its use has gradu- 
ally spread eastward. Long before this, however. 



210 FORAGE CROPS 

it had been introduced into New York from 
Europe. It is now regarded as one of the most 
important forage-crop plants in those states where 
irrigation is practiced. About fifteen years ago, it 
was found that it could be successfully established 
in those states where there is shortage of rainfall, 
but where irrigation is not practiced, as, for ex- 
ample, in Kansas, in which state the area in 
alfalfa has rapidly increased and where it is now 
regarded as one of the most important forage 
crops. It has also been the subject of experiment 
in many of the eastern and middle states, notably 
New York, New Jersey and Maryland, and the 
results secured in recent years show that with 
proper care in the preparation of the land for 
seeding, and in subsequent management, it may 
be profitably grown. In many parts of the eastern 
states it is now an established forage crop. 

Once well established the plant will last a nnm- 
ber of years, from four to ten or more, depending 
on the character of the land, the treatment in ref- 
erence to manuriug, methods of cutting, and free- 
dom from weeds and grass. The annual upright, 
branching stems do not sprout when cut, but die 
back to the crown, when new shoots start and 
grow rapidly. The roots extend much deeper than 
those of most plants, sometimes reaching a depth 
of twelve feet or more, nnder favorable conditions. 
For this reason alfalfa should not be grown per- 



LAND FOR ALFALFA 211 

manently in orchards, as its deep roots are liable to 
injure those of the trees. It is often able to adapt 
itself, however, to soils in which the roots cannot 
extend very deep. 

Land, and its preparation 

Alfalfa grows well on varying kinds of land, 
providing the subsoil is open and porous. The 
most favorable land is a rich, somewhat sandy 
loam, warm and friable, with a deep and loose or 
gravelly subsoil, well supplied with lime. A dense 
clay or hardpan subsoil is most unfavorable. Al- 
though rich land is preferable, alfalfa does well on 
poor, well-drained gravelly soils if well provided 
with the mineral elements, as phosphoric acid, 
potash and lime. While the plant requires much 
water, it will not flourish where the water-level is 
too near the surface, say nearer than eighteen 
inches, or when the ground is saturated, or where, 
when flooded, the water stands more than two or 
three days. Acid lands are uncongenial. 

The field intended for alfalfa should be treated 
the season preceding so as most effectually to 
subdue all weeds and cause the sprouting and 
destruction of any weed seed in the ground. Farm- 
yard manure should preferably not be used for at 
least one year before seeding, as it favors the 
<?rowth of weeds. 



212 FOB AGE CROPS 

Owing to the practically permanent character 
of alfalfa, it will well repay the expense of careful 
and thorough preparation of the land. This is very 
important in order to secure a good "stand." If 
the subsoil is hard and compact, the subsoil plow 
should be used. If a piece of sod land is to be 
converted into an alfalfa field, it should be plowed 
and planted with some cultivated crop the first 
year or two, in order to put the soil into good 
physical condition as well as to destroy all tufts 
of grasses which may spread, as grass is the worst 
enemy of alfalfa. It is desirable to have the soil 
somewhat compact for the seed, and therefore, it 
is better not to sow alfalfa on new-plowed ground. 
Plowing should be completed as long before sow- 
ing as possible, and the land should be rolled to 
compact it, and afterward lightly harrowed to 
leave the suiface finely pulverized, and .to prevent 
loss of moisture. 



'Manures and fertilizers 

Alfalfa is a heavy feeder, and will not thrive on 
lands deficient in plant-food. It is especially de- 
sirable that the soil contain abundance of lime, 
both in order to supply the needs of the plant and 
to correct any possible acidity, for, as already 
stated, acid soils are unfavorable for the growth 
and development of the organisms that are neces- 



214 FORAGE CHOPS 

sary to enable the plant to gather the atmospheric 
soil nitrogen. 

The fertilizers should contain chiefly potash and 
phosphoric acid, and, although alfalfa is capable 
of obtaining atmospheric nitrogen, it responds 
quickly to applications of nitrogenous manures, 
particularly in its early growth. The lime and 
fertilizers should be spread broadcast and har- 
rowed in previous to seeding. The lime should be 
applied, when possible, to the preceding crop, in 
order to ensure its thorough distribution and in- 
corporation with the soil. The following applica- 
tions per acre are recommended in the East, even 
on good lands: 

First year J before seeding, thirty-five bushels of 
stone lime and a mixture containing 3 per cent ni- 
trogen, 10 per cent available phosphoric acid and 5 
per cent potash, at the rate of 400 pounds per acre. 
When there is a known deficiency in mineral 
elements, as in sandy soils, these fertilizers may 
be reinforced with ground phosphate rock or bone, 
or kainit, and plowed in. In the fall or early 
winter a top-dressing with fine manure is good, if 
free from weed or grass seed. The latter point 
is important, as weeds will crowd out the alfalfa. 
The fertilizers should be applied just previous to 
seeding, and well worked into the surface. The 
manure should be applied late in the fall after 
cutting has ceased; it should be fine, and evenly 



FEUTILIZING ALFALFA FIL'LDS 215 

spread ; it will prove serviceable both in protecting 
the plants and in furnishing plant-food that may 
be well distributed in the soil by fall and winter 
rains. 

Second and succeeding years, a top-dressing is 
recommended of eight to ten tons of manure, and 
an application of fertilizers supplying about twenty 
pounds of available phosphoric acid and twenty- 
five pounds of potash, which may preferably be 
obtained from 150 pounds of acid phosphate and 
fifty pounds of muriate of potash per acre. The 
fertilizers may be broadcasted, preferably after the 
first cutting in spring, or previous to the last cut- 
ting in fall, and the manure applied as recom- 
mended for the first jeaY. 

In regions where alfalfa is new, the land should 
be inoculated. There is but one practical way to 
do this, — by the use of soil from an established 
alfalfa field, or from a patch of sweet clover 
(melilotus). The same bacteria inhabit each of 
these plants. It does not matter liow much soil 
is used, so long as it is fine and is scattered over 
the field and harrowed in before sunlight destroys 
the germs. As little as 200 pounds will inoculate 
an acre, and a ton of earth has been used with 
good results. Even and thorough distribution of the 
inoculated soil is readily accomplished by sowing it 
on the land just after plowing, the tillage required 
in seeding ensuring the complete distribution. 



21C) FORAGE CROPS 

Seed and seeding 

Pure seed is essential, — only that which is 
bright, plump and clean. Dodder is a parasitic 
plant, that twines about the alfalfa and thrives 
on its juices. Dodder seed may come with alfalfa 
seed. The alfalfa seed ought always to be re- 
cleaned to free it from this parasite. There is no 
remedy for dodder when once established in a field 
except to plow up the infested patch. Alfalfa seed 
resembles that of red clover, but is larger and, 
when fresh, has a greenish yellow color. 

It is sometimes recommended to sow clover with 
alfalfa; this is a doubtful practice as, when the 
clover disappears, it will leave an uneven and too 
thin stand of alfalfa, although it is good practice 
to seed a little alfalfa with clover and timothy, on 
land intended for alfalfa later. 

Experience has demonstrated that, in order to 
secure a good stand, it is best to sow thirty to 
thirty-five pounds of seed per acre. The seed 
should be sown broadcast, and covered by a very 
light harrow or weeder, and lightly rolled. If 
seeded in spring, the last of April or the first of 
May is preferable in the northern states, and with- 
out any protecting or nurse-crop. 

In the North, notably in Wisconsin, alfalfa is 
seeded in spring, using a nurse -crop of oats or 
barley. The best nurse -crop is beardless spring 



SOWING ALFALFA 217 

barley. This is not the heaviest- yielding barley, 
bat it is the best nurse-crop yet found for alfalfa, 
because it usually does not lodge, does not stool 
very much, nor shade the land too much, and it 
comes off early in the season. The purpose of 
using a nurse- crop is to discourage the growth 
of fox- tail and other annual grasses until the 
alfalfa can get a start. It is very unsafe to sow 
alfalfa alone early in spring, because of the dan- 
ger of its being choked with grasses. One can 
get a much more satisfactory stand with the 
barley than when sown alone. A bushel to the 
acre will be enough barley, although more may 
be used. It is best to sow with a drill, sowing 
the alfalfa seed at the rate of about fifteen to 
twenty pounds per acre in front of the drill. The 
land should have been first deeply plowed, and 
early enough in the season, if possible, to let it 
settle together, then worked to a good seed-bed 
just before sowing. The time of sowing should 
be as early as the danger of hard freezing is 
past, say the middle of April for the 40th par- 
allel, earlier to the south, and later to the north. 
Oats as a nurse -crop are not nearly so safe as 
barley, yet they may be used. No more than a 
bushel of seed should be sown to the acre. The 
oats must be cut for hay just when coming in 
bloom. If cutting is postponed until grain is 
formed, half or more of the alfalfa will be killed. 



218 FOEAGi: CHOPS 

If the oats lodge, cut them for hay the next day. 
Oat hay is a good thmg to have, if it is properly 
cured. When barley seed is not available, oats 
may be used with good results, if care is taken 
to mow on time. 

After the nurse -crop is cut away, let the alfalfa 
alone. It will start into growth promptly, and 
if the soil is fertile and well inoculated, the crop 
will make rapid growth for a time, usually for 
about fifty days. As long as it continues to grow 
thriftily, do not cut. If a rust appears, it should 
be clipped close, which will check or destroy the 
disease. 

Unless seeded, early alfalfa ordinarily will not 
make sufficient growth before midsummer to with- 
stand the weeds and drought. Where the winters 
are not too severe, the trouble with weeds may be 
avoided by seeding the last of August or after 
danger of crab-grass is passed; when seeded at 
this season the weeds are not likely to take posses- 
sion during the fall and sufficient growth will be 
made to enable the plants to withstand the winter. 
The crop from late summer seeding should not be 
cut the first fall, even though a considerable stand 
is secured, but left as a protection in winter. 
There will be no danger of smothering, as the 
plants will usually stand erect rather than go down. 

Care should be taken that the seed is not put 
in too deep — this is very important and is often 



SOWING ALFALFA 219 

the cause of failure. The depth may vary some- 
what with the kind of soil, but in general, if 
planted more than three inches deep, there is 
danger that the germinating plant will not be able 
to reach the surface. One-half to two inches are 
about the extremes. 

Another point of importance, as already stated, 
is that the soil should be packed around the seed. 
Many failures to secure a stand of alfalfa are trace- 
able to sowing the seed broadcast on new -plowed 
ground, and then to harrow, mixing the seed 
loosely with the surface soil, but not compacting 
it thereafter by means of a roller. Under favor- 
able conditions of soil and moisture the plant 
might survive, but it is safer to compact the soil 
and then go over it with a light harrow or weedei', 
loosening the immediate surface. 

Subsequent treatment 

The growth of weeds in spring seedings should 
be checked early by mowing, and as soon as the 
weeds are large enough to be clipped. By slightly 
raising the cutter-bar, the mowing machine can be 
used. If the crop of clippings is not too heavy, it 
may be left on the field and will serve as a mulch for 
the dry weather. This destruction of weeds in the 
early growth is very important, and frequent cutting 
is helpful, also, in establishing the young plants. 



CUTTING TEE ALFALFA 221 

Before clipping, however, examine the little 
alfalfa plants to see whether bnds have started 
near the ground. If these buds are just burst- 
ing into leaf, clip the alfalfa at once. Do not 
clip it before the buds start. Do not cut the 
alfalfa for hay or any other purpose before these 
buds have formed close to the earth. To cut it 
before the buds appear may very seriously set it 
back, and may possibly kill young alfalfa. To 
leave alfalfa uncut will also very seriously weaken 
it, and may result in its death. However, the 
first season it should be permitted to grow as 
long as it is vigorous. There should always be 
left a growth of at least a foot to protect the 
crowns in winter. 

Alfalfa should be cut when about one -quarter 
of the plants are in blossom, whether the growth 
is short or tall, unless a seed-crop is desired. If 
left until fully blossomed, the quality of the prod- 
uct is reduced; besides, the plants are injured and 
subsequent crops are smaller. On rich lands, two 
crops are sometimes secured the first summer 
from spring seeding, but on poor lands or in a 
dry season, no crop can be expected until the 
second year. 

Yield of alfalfa 

The yield on established fields will vary accord- 
ing to the character of the land, thickness of 



222 FORAGE CROPS 

stand and method of treatment. It ranges from 
ten to twenty- six tons per acre green forage for all 
cuttings, or an equivalent in dry hay of two to six 
or more tons. The larger yield is readily obtained 
on good lands. 

Alfalfa is a gross feeder, particularly on the 
mineral elements, and a large producer, and is 
sometimes considered as an exhausting crop. This 
is a mistaken idea; it should rather be looked on 
as a crop fulfilling the proper aim of rational agri- 
culture, which is most perfectly to transform into 
products the raw materials at disposal in atmos- 
phere and soil. 

The chemical composition of alfalfa 

The follow^ing table shows the composition of 
five different cuttings from established fields at the 
New Jersey Experiment Station farm, as well as 
the composition of the hay when ready to put in 
the barn to be fed. These analyses, which are 
representative, show the variations in the compo- 
sition of the different cuttings in the green state, all 
samples representing the crop cut when first blos- 
soms appeared or just before blossoming, as well 
as the changes that were caused by handling, curing 
and storing. The composition of the different cuts 
will vary with the time of cutting and character of 
season, The crude fiber increases with maturity: 



COMPOSITION OF ALFALFA 



223 



Composition of the Crops of the Different Cuttings 







OF Alfalfa 
















— tuuiius 


per hunureu t)L— 




^ 




u 




1) 


? o 


II 


Nitrogen 

free 

extract 


<1 


First cut 


83.00 


0.67 


4.56 


3.65 


1.92 


6.20 


2.62 


Second cut . . . . 


76.63 


1.02 


7.83 


4.07 


2.25 


8 20 


2.85 


Third cut . . . , 


74.10 


1.07 


6.58 


4.52 


2.17 


11.56 


3.60 


Fourth cut . . . 


69.71 


1.10 


7.07 


5.43 


2.67 


14.02 


4.06 


Fifth cut 


81.77 


1.13 


3.20 


4.50 


2.07 


7.33 


3.27 


Hay, when stored . 


18.66 


3.19 


24.11 


13.87 


7.44 


32.73 


11.45 


Hay, after storage 


9 56 


3.36 


31.07 


13.24 


8.64 


34.13 


10.78 




Water- 


free Basis 








First cut .... 




3.94 


26.81 


21.46 


11.29 


36.35 


15.14 


Second cut . . . 




4.36 


33.51 


17.42 


9 63 


35.10 


12 20 


Third cut ... . 




4.13 
3.63 


25.40 
23.33 


17.45 
17.92 


8.38 
8 81 


44.62 
46.27 


13.90 


Fourth cut . . . 




13.40 


Fifth cut .... 




6.19 
3.92 


17.54 
29.63 


24.66 
17.05 


11.34 
9.14 


40.17 
40.23 


17.92 


Hay 




14.07 


Hay 




3.71 


34.33 


14.63 


9.55 


37.71 


11.91 



The chief pomt of difference between the com- 
position of the samples of the green forage is in 
percentage of moisture, the samples representing 
the first and last cuttings showing a much higher 
content of water than those of the cuttings made 
in midsummer. The composition of the dry 
matter, however, shows the true differences. The 
first and fifth cuttings show a much higher per- 
centage of protein and ash, indicating a higher 
feeding value and that they were not so fully ma- 
tured as the others, although the different cuttings 



224 FORAGE CHOPS 

were made when the crop had apparently reached 
the same stage of growth. 

The exact amount of nutrients contained in each 
cutting has been calcuhited in the accompany- 
ing table, together with the yields per acre: 

The Nutrients Contained in the Yields Obtained in the 
Different Cuttings on One Acre 





1— 1 


u 


§2 


6« 


Is 
g p 

6 a 




Nitroge 

free 

extract 




Tons 


Ll.s. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


First cut , 


9.00 


3,UG0 


120.6 


820.4 


657.0 


345.6 


1,116.0 


Second cut 


7.73 


3,G13 


134.5 


1,113.1 


629.2 


347.9 


1,388.3 


Third cut . 


4.89 


2,533 


104.6 


642.5 


442.1 


212.2 


1,130.6 


Fourth cut 


2.75 


1,6G6 


GO. 5 


388.9 


298.7 


146.9 


771.1 


Fifth cut . 


2.23 


913 


50.4 


142.7 


300.7 


92.3 


326.9 



Total . . 26.60 11,785 470.6 3,107.6 2,327.7 1,144.9 4,732.9 
Hay from 

second cut 2.21 3,595 141.0 1,065.7 613.1 328.8 1,446.7 
Hay after 

storage . 2.00 3,617 134.4 1,242.8 529.6 345.6 1,365.2 

It will be observed that the largest quantity of 
dry matter was secured in the second cutting, al- 
though the largest amount of protein was secured 
in the first cutting. There was a loss of moisture 
and a change in relative composition of the hay in 
curing, although the changes were not serious, 
and were rather evenly distributed throughout the 
various groups of nutrients; whereas the losses 
incurred in storing were considerable, aside from 
the moisture, and were particularly noticeable in 



COMPOSITIOJS OF ALFALFA 225 

the loss of proteii] , which resulted in a considerable 
relative gain in the amount of fiber. This storage 
loss was to be expected, as the chief losses were 
probably mechanical, due to the shattering of the 
leaves, which are richer in protein and poorer in 
fiber than the stems. The chief point of interest is 
the very large quantity of dry matter obtained in 
the year's growth, nearly six tons, and the large 
proportion of nitrogenous substance, or crude pro- 
tein, contained in it (2,327.7 pounds) equivalent 
to that in about 7.5 tons of wheat bran. 

Variations will occur in samples from different 
fields and in different years, but it is thought that 
the analyses given here fairly represent what may 
be expected as to variations in the composition of 
the different cuttings, and the losses that occur 
in handling when made and stored as hay. 



Alfalfa as a soiling crop 

Alfalfa is one of the most useful of the soiling 
crops, because it is ready for use early in the 
year, and because three to four cuttings may be 
had each year. In the East, the first cutting is 
ready about the latter part of May or first of June, 
the second, usually within a month or five weeks, 
and the third and fourth usually four to six weeks 
after cutting the preceding crop. It possesses 
more nearly than any other crop the very great 

o 



226 FOB AGE CROPS 

advantage of i'uriiisliiiig' a practically coiitiniioiis 
sux>ply of forage during the growing season. That 
this may be accomplished, it is necessary that a 
large i)art of the crop shall be cut either too early 
or too late; therefore it is desirable to have other 
forage crops if the very best results are to be 
reached. Care should be exercised when using it 
for soiling, particularly in the early cuttings, as 
animals are very fond of it and are likely to eat 
so much as to cause bloating. Animals have been 
soiled, with success, at the New Jersey Experi- 
ment Station for the past eight years, and no trouble 
has been encountered, probably due to the fact that 
the animals, previous to feeding on alfalfa, have 
been supplied with other succulent forage, and the 
quantities have been adjusted so that there should 
not be an excess for any one animal. In the early 
cuttings, from thirty-five to forty pounds per day 
usually are fed, gradually increasing to fifty 
pounds on the third day after beginning. After 
once started in this way, there is no danger, and 
only favorable results are likely to follow. 

Another peculiar advantage of the soiling for- 
age is its richness in digestible protein; fifty 
pounds of the green forage will furnish v^ry nearly 
two pounds of digestible protein. Therefore, the 
feeds used wdth alfalfa should contain more car- 
bohydrates than are usually fed with forage. A 
mixture of feeds that would make a good ration 



228 FOB AGE CHOPS 

with fifty pounds of alfalfa per day may consist 
of about six pounds per day of a mixture of three 
pounds each of wheat bran, dried brewers' grains 
and corn meal. When large quantities of alfalfa 
are available as forage, the quantity used per day 
may be increased, thus reducing the necessity for 
feeds; and such feeds as are used may be richer 
in carbohydrates, as, for example, corn meal. 

Alfalfa as a hay crop 

When desired for hay, alfalfa should be cut 
when budded, or just before full bloom, as it con- 
tains more nutriment at this time; besides, it is 
better for the subsequent crops to cut the plant 
Ijefore it is in full bloom. 

The value of the hay depends much on the 
method ov care used in curing it. Alfalfa cannot 
be cured as hay is usually handled. After cut- 
ting, it should be allowed to lie in the swath only 
long enough to become well wilted, when it should 
be raked into windrows, where it may be left a 
few hours before putting into cocks. The hay 
should be allowed to I'emain in the cocks until 
practically cured, which usually requires two or 
three days. Then it may be thrown out, dried 
with three or four hours' sun, and hauled to the 
barn without further handling. It is desirable to 
use hay caps in unfavorable weather, as water 



ALFALFA BAT 229 

penetrates alfalfa cocks very readily, which injures 
the feeding value and causes mechanical losses. In 
good weather, alfalfa that is cut in the morning 
may be raked in the afternoon of the same day. It 
should not be left long enough to become dr}^ and 
brittle, or many of the leaves will shatter in raking, 
much reducing the value of the hay. 

In experiments at the New Jersey Experiment 
Station, it was shown that alfalfa hay may be 
substituted for the protein feeds generally used, 
without interfering with the health of the ani- 
mals, and at considerable saving in the cost of 
the ration, although the yield of milk was not 
quite so high. In other experiments, when cow- 
pea silage and alfalfa hay were used as the 
source of roughage as well as for the protein, 
and corn meal used to supply the carbohydrates, 
the yield of milk was greater and the cost per 
quart much lower than from the regular barn 
ration, in which the source of protein was such 
feed products as dried brewers' grains and wheat 
bran. In other words, it has been demonstrated 
that it is quite possible, with the judicious use 
of such leguminous crops as alfalfa and cowpeas, 
to produce all the needed nutrients on the farm, 
thus saving expensive feed bills and at the same 
time enriching the soil in nitrogen. It is impor- 
tant that dairy farmers should grow, if possible, 
a few acres of alfalfa to supply part of the green 



230 FORAGE CROPS 

forage needed for summer feeding, and as mneh 
as possible of the protein needed to balance the 
silao-e or other fodder rations of the winter. 



Alfalfa as pasture 

Alfalfa may also be safely used as pasture for 
horses and swine, and the careful farmer who 
gives the subject intelligent personal attention 
may also pasture cattle and sheep on alfalfa with 
success. There is always danger, however, of 
losing animals with bloat, and pasturing, especially 
with sheep, is injurious to the alfalfa because they 
eat away the young buds, which would soon 
develop into new branches. The younger plants 
are not strong enough to withstand long- continued 
pasturing the first year after sowing, and much 
tramping is injurious at any time. 

Alfalfa silage 

Alfalfa can be successfully made into silage, 
although, in common with other plants of a 
highly nitrogenous character, it is not so desir- 
able as corn. The losses are likely to be con- 
siderable, and the product seems to be less pala- 
table than corn silage. Nevertheless, there are 
many cii"(^urastances when its preservation and 
use as silac:e are to be recommended. 



CHAPTER XIII 
THE CLOVERS 

The true clovers all belong to the genus or 
group Trifollum, of which there are many spe- 
cies and varieties in many parts of the world. 
The sweet or Bokhara clover is a Melilotus, not 
sufficiently grown to warrant discussion in a 
brief popular book like this. The bur clover is 
a Medicago, allied to alfalfa. Other related plants 
of the legume family are sometimes known as 
clover, but they need not be described here. 

There are four types of true clover that must 
be discussed in any American book on forage 
plants: (1) red clover {Trlfol'mm pratense) ^ and 
mammoth red clover (variety perenne, formerly 
but improperly called Trifolkim medium) ; (2) 
alsike clover {T. Jiyhrlduni) \ (3) crimson clover 
{T. incarnatum) ; (4) white clover (T. repens) . 
All these clovers are natives of the Old World. 

THE RED CLOVERS 

It has been well said that red clover is more 
valuable among fodder plants than wheat is 
among cereals. As a forage crop, it has no 

(231) 



232 FOEAOE CROPS 

superior, all things considered. Like corn, it is 
adapted to a wide variety of soils, and, because 
of its habit of growth, is always beneficial when 
introduced into a rotation, aside from its par- 
ticular value as a forage crop. While its best 
use for most purposes is in connection with 
other clovers and grasses, it is excellent as a 
green forage plant, since it is very palatable 
and contains the nutrients in such proportions as 
to make it a well-balanced ration in itself, thus 
serving to supplement pastures, as well as to 
provide an excellent dry forage. 

While it may persist for three years, in prac- 
tice it must be regarded as a biennial, the length 
of life depending largely on its treatment and 
the nature of the soil. It thrives best on deep 
loamy lands, rich in humus, where, as a rule, it 
stands longer than on light lands, although it is 
well adapted to them and large crops are obtained 
when well fertilized. 

Soils and manures 

Stiff clays, when properly tilled, are suitable 
for red clover, although they should be well 
drained to avoid any standing water. Dry, sandy 
or hot lands are unfavorable, although they may 
be very materially improved by liming or by the 
use of marl. On loose lands and heavy clays. 



COMMON BED CLOVEM 233 

clover is liable to be uprooted by the alternate 
freezing and thawing, and on sandy lands it suf- 
fers from drought. Like alfalfa, the soil must be 
either rich in lime, or this substance must be 
applied, for it is a heavy feeder on lime, as well 
as on the other mineral constituents. The ver}^ 
beneficial effects that were observed from the 
former use of gypsum, when it was thought that 
plaster or gypsum was a specific fertilizer for 
clover in the eastern states, is now considered 
to be due to the power that gypsum possesses 
of setting free the dormant potash of the soil. 
Therefore, on old soils from which the potash has 
been to some extent exhausted, the element potas- 
sium should be applied in considerable excess. The 
very beneficial effect of w^ood ashes, following 
the use of gypsum, also verifies this conclusion, 
as ashes is rich in both of the constituents, potash 
and lime. 

As clover is a legume, it is not usually bene- 
fited by the addition of nitrogenous manures, 
except in the early stages of growth. On soils 
not well supplied with vegetable matter, manures 
are very beneficial, primarily in correcting the 
deficiencies, and in providing a more favorable 
medium for the development of the specific bac- 
teria. The size of the crop will be measured to 
some extent, also, by the abundance of mineral 
elements, thus enabling the plant to employ to 



234 FOB AGE CBOPS 

full advantage its capability of gathering nitro- 
gen. In many cases, particularly on soils that 
are likely to heave, a mnlcli of mannre is very 
advantageous as a protection. 

Methods of seeding red clover 

The method of seeding most generally prac- 
ticed is to sow in March or April, on wheat or 
rye (which was seeded the fall previous), when 
the ground is still moist, and danger of very 
heavy freezing is past. By this practice, the light 
freezing and subsequent drying of the soil causes 
the seed to be covered, and it will then germi- 
nate and make a light growth previous to har- 
vesting. .It is also seeded in spring with oats or 
barley; this is a common practice in regions 
which are cool and moist, as in many of the 
western states. 

The quantity of seed ranges from eight to 
twelve pounds per acre. The plants grow rather 
feebly until the grain is removed, when they 
usually come forward rapidly, sometimes permit- 
ting a fall cutting, but in any case they make a 
crop the following year. 

Recently, however, — especially where the plant 
is grown primarily for forage purposes, — the seed- 
ing is made in the latter part of August or enrly 
September, without nurse- crop, usually following 



SEEDING RED CLOVER 20.") 

potatoes or some other hoed crop. When seeded 
in this way, the hand should be very carefully 
prepared, and the surface made as fine as pos- 
sible, in order that germination may be rapid 
and complete, as well as to provide abundant 
food near the surface. 

The quantity of seed in this case is about six- 
teen pounds per acre on the average. On poor 
lands, more seed must be used. If seeding is too 
thick, the plants are liable to lodge and thus be 
badly injured for either forage or hay. When 
seeded in this way, the seed should be lightly cov- 
ered, preferably with a weeder, and on light lands 
rolled with a light roller. In ordinary seasons, the 
plants will make considerable growth and become 
well rooted before winter, and the crop usually 
will be ready to harvest as early in the next 
season as in the second year if seeded in the old 
way with grain. 

In many sections, red clover is used as a 
catch -crop in corn, mainly to serve as a spring 
pasture and in preparation of the land for wheat. 
This practice is generally not suitable when the 
primary purpose is to make soiling crops or 
hay. In the eastern and central western states, 
the crop will be ready to harvest about the 
middle of June, although the time will vary, 
depending on the season; if dry and warm the 
crop will mature earlier than if cold and wet. 



236 FOBAQE CHOPS 

Harvest, yields and value 

If used primarily for soiling, harvest should 
begin when the plant is fully in head, and it 
may contmue until many of the heads become 
brown. This period will range from ten days to 
two weeks, depending on the soil and season. 

As a soiling crop, red clover should be fed 
with care at first, unless the animals have been 
accustomed to green forage of other kinds, as 
they are extremely fond of it, and there is 
danger that there will be a tendency to bloat. 
When they have been regularly fed on green for- 
age, and the quantity is regulated, no danger 
need be apprehended from this source, and the 
usual amount of fifty to sixty pounds per day 
may be used. 

With a good stand and sufficient moisture, the 
yields of red clover will range from six to ten tons 
per acre. It usually pays to allow it to stand for 
the second crop, which is also quite as serviceable 
for forage as the first, although the yield is smaller, 
— four to six tons per acre. The second cutting is 
usually ready in early August. 

lied clover varies in its composition according 
to the time of harvesting, although either when 
cut young, or allowed practically to mature, it is 
much richer in the nitrogenous compounds than 
are the grasses, but not so rich as alfalfa. The 



HAT FRO 31 RED CLOVER 237 

average composition of red clover forage in full 
blossom is as follows: 

Clover, An average 

green One ton acre-yield Clover 

forage contains furnishes hay 

Per cent Lbs. Lbs. Per cent 

Water 70.80 20.80 

Dry matter 29.20 584 4,G72 79.20 

Ether extract 1.10 22 176 4.50 

Fiber 8.10 162 1,296 21.90 

Protein 4.40 88 704 12 40 

Ash 2.10 42 3;J6 6.60 

Nitrogen -free extract .... 13.50 270 2,160 33.80 



Hed clover hay 

The one very great advantage of clover as forage 
is that, if not needed as a supplementary green 
food, it makes good hay. Clover hay is one of the 
best kinds for dairy purposes. However, it is liable 
to considerable loss in harvesting, unless great 
care is used, owing to the rapidity with which the 
leaves dry and to their tendency to fall in curing 
and housing. If cut when about one -third of the 
bloom has disappeared, it will contain very much 
less moisture than when cut earlier, and still 
retain a large proportion of leaves if carefully 
handled . 

Clover should be cut when free from dew or 
other moisture, and allowed to wilt, then raked 
into windrows, and put up into cocks and cured 
in this way, rather than be allowed to lie in the 



238 FORAGE CROPS 

swath until dry. Light rains, or even heavy dews, 
will change the green leaves to dark brown, and 
make them crisp and readily removed by handling ; 
they will also extract the aroma arising from the 
essential oils, which is so important in making 
the hay palatable and attractive. When properly 
cured, the hay will have about the composition 
noted above, and, as a roughage to use with silage 
in winter feeding, it cannot be surpassed except 
perhaps by alfalfa. 

The high content of protein makes clover one of 
the best plants for forage purposes. It is possible 
with clover alone to supply all the needed nutrients 
in good proportions for dairy animals. It is usually 
better, however, to feed from fifty to sixty pounds 
and to supply the remainder of the nutrients from 
other sources, to give variety to the ration. 

Pasturing red clover 

When the purpose is to secure the best yield 
of forage, it is not desirable to pasture red clover, 
although it is an excellent pasture plant, and is 
well liked by all farm stock. The tramping of 
animals will soon kill many of the stools, injur- 
ing the stand, and causing a smaller yield in later 
cuttings. Red clover is an important constituent 
of permanent pastures, generally insuring a larger 
yield the first season than grass alone. 



PERENNIAL RED CLOVER 239 

Mammoth red clover 

This resembles the common red clover, but is 
larger, later and more truly perennial. It is a 
great forager. The stems are stout and coarse, 
and, therefore, it is not so desirable for hay; but 
these characteristics do not impair it as a soiling 
crop. The preparation of soil and the seeding 
may be similar to the practice recommended for 
common red clover. The quantity of seed should 
be twelve to fifteen pounds per acre, according to 
the character of soil. When seeded in the fall, 
the crops should be ready for the first cutting by 
June 15. Yields are usually heavier than those of 
the common red clover. A good average yield is 
ten tons of forage per acre. 

Mammoth clover may be fed as recommended 
for red clover, the composition not materially dif- 
fering, although, unless the plant has reached the 
full blossom stage, it is likely to carry less dry 
matter; therefore, a slightly larger proportion 
should be fed. All animals are fond of this for- 
age, and the results of feeding are exceedingly 
satisfactory. 

If the land is good, and well drained, the crop 
will make a rapid second growth, to serve for for- 
age, or for pasture, it being excellent for grazing. 

The great foraging powers of this plant make 
it exceedingly valuable as a soil-enricher. The 



240 FORAGE CROPS 

lcii'g"e anioimts of uiiiieral matter from the lower 
layers of soil, being stored in the roots and stems, 
will greatly improve the soil for subsequent crops. 

ALSIKE CLOVER 

Alsike clover is more perennial than red clover, 
and can be left frequently for three to five years. 
It is little affected by extreme seasons, and lands 
on which other varieties do not grow may produce 
an abundant harvest. It thrives on damp, moist 
loams and clays, on lands too wet for other clovers. 
It is very hardy, and not liable to be uprooted by 
late frosts, which frequently injure the red clover. 

Alsike clover has a rather superficial root 
system; therefore, the preparation of land should 
be very thorough, and the surface layers well 
enriched, particularly with the mineral elements. 
Owing to its somewhat creeping habit, it is not 
well adapted to seeding alone; as the stems lie 
along the ground, without rooting, the remainder 
of the stem ascending, in wet seasons it is liable 
to lodge badly, and the lower stems to rot. 

Seeding alsike clover 

Alsike may be seeded with wheat or rye, in 
the same way as red clover. When used for 
forage, the best time for seeding is in late 



ALSIKE CLOVER 241 

summer or early fall. The quantity of seed will 
be about one -half that recommended for red 
clover, as the seeds are about half as large. A 
pure sowing of alsike, however, is not usually 
advisable, because of the tendency to lodge, as 
already pointed out; although, where it grows well, 
it may be used in a soiling-crop rotation with 
great advantage. 

Value and yield 

Mixtures of red and alsike clovers and timothy 
make a most excellent forage, the timothy sup- 
porting the clover and preventing lodging. The 
alsike will mature about a week later than the 
red clover. It makes a very rapid and usually 
a large second growth. The best time for cut- 
ting is when the plant is in flower, as at this 
period it is richest in digestible nutritive matter. 
It contains more water, as a rule, than red clover, 
thus causing the same tonnage weight to carry 
less nutriment. The yield will range from eight 
to twelve tons per acre, depending on the charac- 
ter of the soil. The composition of this clover is 
similar to that of red clover. 

Alsike hay and pasture 

Alsike clover makes very palatable and useful 
hay, its fineness of stem and large proportion of 



24:2 FORAGE CROPS 

leaf giving a larger percentage of digestible 
matter than the reel clover at the same period of 
growth. However, it is more difficult to cure, 
and suffers great loss in handling if care is not 
exercised. 

It also makes excellent pasture, starting quickly 
after the first cutting, and being less readily 
destroyed by the tramping of animals than red 
clovers. 

Composition of Alsike Clover 



Per cent 

Water 74.80 

Dry matter 25.20 

Ether extract 0.90 

Crude fiber 7.40 

Protein 3.90 

Ash 2.00 

Nitrogen-free extract . 11.00 



CRIMSON CLOVER 

Crimson clover is an annual. Because of its 
adaptabilities, it has quickly made a place for 
itself in American agricultural practice. Its habits 
of growth are not so well known as those of the 
other kinds described, and for this reason, among 
others, is not so generally distributed, even in 
those sections in which it thrives. Its habits are 
such as to make it undesirable to substitute for 
red clover, although it may well supplement it. 



One ton 
contains 


An average 

a,cre-yield 

furnishes 


Ll)s. 


Lbs. 


504 


4,032 


18 


144 


148 


1,184 


78 


624 


40 


320 


220 


1,760 



CRIMSON CLOVER 



243 



It is essentially a cool- weather plant, thriving 
well in late fall and early spring, and maturing 
seed in the middle states about June 1. These 
characteristics make it especially suitable for a 




Fig. 49. Field of crimson clover, grown as a catch-crop seeded in 
corn at last cultivation. 



244 FORAGE CHOPS 

catch- crop or cover -crop, to be used without 
interference with regular rotations. It has proved 
to be hardy in the eastern and middle states, 
although many failures are reported, which are 
probably due in large part to failure to under- 
stand its peculiar habits. The impression that 
it will grow well on poor soils with other crops, 
under all conditions of season and climate and 
without particular care in seeding, is very erro- 
neous. It must have abundant food; it is affected 
by drought and cold and severe weather; it can 
not subsist with other crops which rob it of mois- 
ture and plant-food; it must be carefully seeded 
in order to insure against adverse conditions, 
although when conditions are favorable it will 
catch and grow from a mere scattering of the 
seed on raw ground. 



Method of seeding 

Crimson clover should preferably be seeded at 
the rate of twelve to fifteen pounds per acre, on a 
well-prepared seed-bed, and covered lightly with 
harrow or weeder. It is not suited for spring seed- 
ing, as it ceases to grow as soon as hot weather 
comes. The best period for seeding ranges in the 
eastern and middle states from July 15 to Septem- 
ber 1. Therefore, it may be used as a catch-crop, 
seeded in corn, after the regular cultivation has 



CRIMSO±Y CLOVER 245 

ceased, and also after early potatoes, tomatoes and 
other crops harvested early enough in the season 
to enable its roots to get hold of the soil and to 
make considerable top before cold weather. 

While it requires good land for its best develop- 
ment, it is well adapted to light sandy lands if well 
supplied with mineral food. It will grow later in 
the fall than red clovei", because it is not injured 
by light freezing, and it also makes more rapid 
spring growth than any of the other clovers when 
seeded in the late summer. When land is light and 
poor, a dressing of acid phosphate, say at the 
rate of 150 pounds per acre, will aid in securing a 
catch and insuring a crop. 

Crimson clover as green forage 

Early maturity is one of the most valuable char- 
acteristics of crimson clover, from the standpoint 
of its use as green forage, making it particularly 
useful in rotations. In the middle states it will 
begin to head about May 15, thus following directly 
after wheat. Cutting should begin as soon as the 
heads begin to form, and may be continued until 
the plant is completely headed out. This period 
ranges from ten days to two weeks. The dry 
matter is richer in protein than red clover; and 
the plant has more moisture at the same stage of 
growth than the red. Therefore, larger quantities. 



246 



FORAGE CROPS 



as usually cut, will be required to furnish the same 
amount of total nutritive matter. 

Crimson clover is an exceedingly palatable for- 
age, and serves good purpose for soiling, for hay, 
or for pasturage. The composition at different 
X^eriods of growth is shown in the following tabu- 
lation: 

Composition of Crimson Clover 



May 12, 
Pounds per hundred of before blossoming 


May 24, 
in blossom 


May 31, 
mature 


Water 


89.17 


84.23 


83.26 


Dry matter 


10.83 


15.77 


16.74 


Crude fat 


0.43 


0.53 


0.53 


Crude fiber 


1.78 


4.37 


4.78 


Crude ash 


1.21 


1.31 


1.47 


Crude protein 


2.53 


3.00 


2.95 


Nitrogen-free extract . 


4.90 


6.57 


7.01 


Albuminoid protein . . 


1.80 


2.09 


2.13 



The samples taken on May 12, before bloom- 
ing, show a high content of water. The samples 
representing full bloom, on May 24, and the fully 
matured plant, on May 31, show a much higher 
content of dry matter, although still much less 
than is contained in other green forage crops. 
The samples at this time also show a much higher 
percentage of crude fiber than on the earlier dates. 

In the earlier stages of growth, crimson clover 
is too watery to give the best satisfaction as an 
exclusive feed, although in actual practice the for- 
age would be much drier than is indicated by the 
analyses. 



CRIMSON CLOVER 



247 



"There has been much discussion at farmers' 
institutes and in the cohimns of the agricultural 
press," write Roberts and Clinton (Cornell Bulletin 
No. 135), "as to the value of crimson clover in this 
state [central New York] as a forage crop and as 
an improver of the soil. To answer these questions 
in part and to determine the relative value of the 




Fig. 50 (Jrimson clover rHady for soiling. May 20. New Jersey. 



248 FORAGU CBOPS 

different clovers, there were planted side by side on 
August 1, 1896, three plats of clover, one of crim- 
son, one of common red and one of mammoth. 
The soil was gravelly and porous. All varieties of 
clover came up quickly and made good growth. 
The crimson clover, however, made far more rapid 
growth in the fall than did the others. One object 
of these experiments was to determine the amount 
of nitrogen stored up by the different varieties of 
clover. On November 2, samples were taken of 
each kind of clover, the roots and tops of each 
being taken as the sample. The chemical analysis 
shows the following amount of nitrogen stored up 
in each per acre: 

Nitrogen Nitrogen Total pounds 

Kind of clover in tops in roots of nitrogen 

(pounds) (pounds) per acre 

Crimson 125.28 30.66 155.94 

Red 63.11 40.25 103.36 

Mammoth 67.57 78.39 145.96 

"All clovers wintered well, but in the spring the 
freezing and thawing killed nearl}^ all of the crim- 
son clover. It had, however, served its purpose 
as a cover -crop and for late fall pasture would 
have been valuable, leaving in the ground enough 
fertilizing material to pay for the expense of the 
seeding." 

Yield of crimson clover 



'to' 



The yield varies widely, but from good seeding 
the average of green forage should be about eight 



CRIMSON CLOVER 249 

tons per acre. In experiments at the New Jersey 
Experiment Station, crimson clover was the 
cheapest forage crop grown. This was due both 
to the low cost of seed and to the fact that it was 
grown without extra expense of manure or ferti- 
lizer; besides, it was generally grown as a catch- 
crop and did not interfere with regular rotations. 
Its advantages as a soil -improver are also 
worthy of careful consideration by the dairy farmer. 
If seeded in corn at the last cultivation, it may be 
harvested in time to permit of planting corn the 
next season, and besides forage, the humus-form- 
ing material remaining in stubble and roots 
improves the land. 

Average Composition of Crimson Clover 







One ton 
contains 


An fiver.age 
acre-yieUl 
fiirnishos 




Pel' cent 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Water 


84.00 
16.00 


320 




Dry matter 


2,560 


Ether extract 


0.50 


10 


80 


Crude fiber 


4.10 


82 


656 


Protein . 


3.00 


60 


480 


Ash 


1.40 
7.00 


28 
140 


224 


Nitrogen -free extract . . 


1,120 



Crimson clover liay 

Crimson clover is in no sense a substitute for 
red clover, either as a green forage or hay, but 
it makes hay of excellent quality, and is not so 



250 FOB AGE CROPS 

much injured by light rains and dews, owing to 
the smaller proportion of leaf. The stems are 
finer and are readily eaten and digested . The diffi- 
culty in making hay arises from the fact that 
it is ready for hay- making at a period when the 
season is still cool, and bright sunshiny days are 
less frequent. Stock is said sometimes to suffer 
from eating crimson clover hay from the forma- 
tion of hair- balls in the stomach, due to the 
hairs on the plant. 

Crimson clover as i)asture 

Crimson clover is very highly regarded as a 
pasture plant, particularly for late fall and earl}^ 
spring. When seeding has been made in July, 
on lands not otherwise occupied, it makes rapid 
growth and serves as late fall pasture, not being 
injured by frost in the same degree that red 
clover is. Fall pasturing frequently benefits the 
plant, as a thick, heavy crop is not so liable to 
be carried safely through winter. It makes earlier 
pastures than any other clover. It is very useful 
for sheep or cattle. As a pasture clover, it is a 
very desirable plant in the rotation, inasmuch as 
it is adaptable, easily grown, matures quickly in 
a cool season and possesses the characteristics of 
other clovers in contributing directly to the in- 
crease of nitrogen in the soil. 



WHITE CLOVEB AS FOB AGE 251 

WHITE CLOVER 

White clover is not suitable for soiling forage or 
hay, but is very useful in the formation of pas- 
tures, especially on low -lying lands. On good land 
it lasts from four to five years. It is superior to 
red clover in thriving on lands of inferior quality, 
standing pasturing well, and possessing higher 
nutritive value. Sometimes the creeping stems 
and foliage become too luxuriant, when it may act 
injuriously in suppressing other plants. 

White clover is less sensitive to climate than 
red clover. It bears drought very well, although its 
roots confine themselves mainly to the superficial 
layer of the soil. In dry seasons the old branches 
do not lengthen, and growth is confined almost 
entirely to the principal stem. White clover suc- 
ceeds best in a moist soil, containing lime and an 
abundance of humus. It can also adapt itself to 
sandy soils, which are not too loose and dry, pro- 
viding the surface contains sufficient nutriment. 

The parent stem sends out creeping branches ; 
these in turn branch and at intervals give off 
shoots. If conditions are favorable, the branches 
become long and extend in all directions ; in this 
way a large surface is soon covered. 

If the plant has not been sown with a cereal 
crop, full development is made the first year, 
flowering early in spring, but rather later than red 



252 FOBAOE CHOPS 

clover. As pasture it is better than any other 
kind of clover, being readily eaten by all kinds 
of live-stock. Pasturing is begun in the spring, 
as soon as animals can get a good bite, and it 
remains good until late autumn. 

Because of its higher content of water, white 
clover is more difficult to cure than red clover, but 
not so wasteful in curing, as the leaves do not fall 
away so readily. 

When seeded alone, ten pounds of seed per 
acre should be used. But a pure sowing of white 
clover is neither so good nor so healthful for stock 
as a mixture. It may be mixed with other clovers 
and with grasses, either for temporary or perma- 
nent meadows. It is much benefited by top -dress- 
ings of lime, marl, ashes or mixtures of bone and 
potash. 



CHAPTER XIV 
OTHER LEGUMINOUS FORAGE CROPS 

Much attention has been given to leguminous 
forage crops in recent years because of their soil- 
enriching propensities and their supply of pro- 
tein substances to animals. Many of these plants 
are now being experimented with in different 
parts of the country; some of the remaining kinds 
that have now thoroughly proved themselves may 
be discussed here. 

COWPEA 

The cowpea is an annual viny plant, more a 
bean than a pea. Its origin is authoritatively 
stated to be in the Orient, where it has been cul- 
tivated for thousands of years; it is thought to 
have been introduced into this country in the 
early part of the eighteenth century. Its best 
development occurs in warm climates; in this 
country it has found a congenial home in the 
southern states, where it reaches its maximum 
development. A number of varieties have been 
developed, however, that are adapted to cooler 
conditions, so that now it is well distributed even 
in parts of the North, where its adaptation to 

(253) 



254 FORAGE CROPS 

various uses and the rapid and large development 
of plant make it one of the most useful of the 
annual summer legumes for forage purposes. 

Varieties of cowpea 

The natural tendency of the plant toward varia- 
tion has resulted in many varieties, although the 
permanent and distinct kinds are comparatively 
few. The same variety is likely to be given a 
new name in different parts of the country, as, 
for example, the one variety that goes under the 
name of Unknown, Wonderful and Quadroon. 
In addition to the confusion arising from this 
practice, the same name is frequently given to a 
number of varieties, as, for example, the name 
Crowder, which is applied to any variety in 
which the seeds are closely packed or crowded 
in the pod. The further fact that season and 
climate exert such an influence on the plant as to 
make a variety in one place very different from 
what it is in another place, renders it difficult to 
give positive advice as to the choice of kinds for 
specific purposes. The varieties range from a 
bush a foot or so high, without runners, to those 
having distinct vining or trailing habits, the vines 
sometimes reaching a length of ten to twenty 
feet. The pods range from four to eighteen 
inches in length, giving seed of every possible 




Fig. 51. The cowpea. 



256 FORAGE CHOPS 

shape and form. The period of mature growth 
also varies, the varieties ranging in time of 
maturity from two to six months, although the 
habit of plant bears some relation to the period, 
for the more nearly the plant approaches the bush 
form, the shorter the time required for maturity. 

In order to choose the proper variety, the object 
of its cultivation should be clearly established. 
When short, quick growth and maturity are re- 
quired, then the bush varieties should be chosen, 
particularly in the North; whereas, if the purpose 
is to produce much forage and the period of growth 
can be extended, the vining varieties are likely to 
be more useful. When grown primarily for green 
forage, the period in which they must grow should 
determine the variety. It is more difficult to choose 
varieties for the North than for the South, as the 
plant has not been so carefully studied in this sec- 
tion. In the more northern sections, the Early 
Black, Small Black, Black Eye, Mt. Olive, South- 
down, Red Ripper, Whippoorwill, Wonderful, Clay, 
New Era, and Iron have proved excellent for the 
various purposes for which cowpeas are grown. 
Early Black, Black Eye, New Era and Mt. Olive 
are superior when the seed crop is desired, as they 
mature quickly; the others are better adapted for 
forage and green manure. The cowpea varies so 
widely in its habits of growth that it is possible to 
select varieties suitable to all conditions. 



THE COWPIiA 257 

Time mid method of seeding 

The time for seeding the cowpea depends on 
the weather. The crop should not be sown mitil 
danger of frost is past, and the soil is thoroughly 
warm. In cold, backward springs many failures 
have been recorded because of too early seeding; 
the seed is then liable to rot, and if uniform and 
quick germination does take place, the crop is re- 
tarded and is likely to be unsatisfactory even if 
warm weather follows. This is particularly true 
when cowpeas are grown for green forage or hay. 
Neither should they be sown for forage later than 
two months before the average date of frost, as 
the first heavy frost will destroy the plants and no 
variety that is now known will reach a satisfactory 
stage of growth within this period except as green- 
manure. 

For forage and green manure, the crop may be 
sown broadcast at the rate of one to one and one- 
half bushels per acre, or it may be drilled in with 
an ordinary grain- drill. If the seeding is not 
made too early, broadcasting is very satisfactory. 
If early growth is retarded, weeds get a foothold, 
and the crop is likely to be choked out. When 
the crop is grown for seed, planting should prefer- 
ably be in drills, from two to three feet apart, or 
a little closer than corn, and the quantity of seed 
may be reduced to three pecks per acre. When 

Q 



258 FORAGE CHOPS 

the seed is expensive, it pays even for forage to 
use the smaller quantity and cultivate, rather than 
to broadcast the larger quantity. 

Seed should be covered one to two inches deep, 
and on very light soils a little deeper. The season, 
to some extent, governs the depth; in a dry sea- 
son, the deeper the seed the better. The difficulty 
in too late summer broadcast seeding is that 
crab-grass or other growth is likely to choke out 
the plants. 

Value of the cowpea crop 

Perhaps there is no other annual leguminous for- 
age crop that is so generally useful as the cowpea. 
In the first place, it grows in hot weather, when it is 
desirable to have the ground covered; (2) its long 
tap-root penetrates the subsoil, loosening it and 
making it more porous; (3) the absorption and 
assimilation of the free nitrogen makes it of great 
service; (4) it provides good forage; (5) it may 
be used as a cover-crop; (6) the roots and stubble 
are left as additions to the soil, always causing 
considerable improvement. 

Manures and fertilizers 

While the cowpea is well adapted to light soils, 
nevertheless, if the best results are to be had, the 
soil must be w^ell supplied with phosphoric acid 




Fig. 53o Crop of cowpeas for soiling. 



TBI] COWPUA 261 

and potash. On lands that are capable of produc- 
ing fair crops, the fertilizers may be limited to an 
application of these minerals, and a mixture of 

Acid phosphate 300 pounds 

Muriate of potash 100 pounds 

applied at the rate of 200 pounds per acre is 
recommended. This should be broadcasted, and 
well cultivated into the soil previous to planting. 

Harvesting cotvpeas 

For soiling purposes the crop may be harvested 
in its immature state, although a larger amount of 
dry matter will be secured if it is not cut until the 
pods are turning yellow. It is often necessary to 
have the crop ready in two to two and one- half 
months; when the early varieties are sown, and 
the season is favorable, profitable crops may be 
harvested as early as this after seeding. If the 
cowpea is not harvested promptly it does not suffer 
serious loss, as is the case with many other crops. 
The leaves remain green and the stems succulent 
until growth ceases. When the entire season can 
be used for the crop, the trailing varieties will give 
the larger yield, although they are more difficult 
to harvest, owing to the intertwining of the vines. 
If cut in a very immature stage, the forage shows 
a higher content of water, and the dry matter is 



262 FORAGE CROPS 

relatively richer in nitrogenous substance than 
when more nearly mature. 

Cowpea hay is more difficult to cure than clover, 
owing to the very succulent stems and large leaves. 
Therefore, it must be handled carefully, in order 
to prevent losses in the field, or molding in the 
mow. In the southern states, the practice of 
"ricking" is quite general. That is, the crop is 
mown, allowed to wilt in the swath, then raked 
into windrows and allowed to dry until it can be 
readily handled, then carted and placed in rather 
large stacks on ricks that are placed a foot or so 
from the ground, enabling the plants to cure 
thoroughly. There is no special need for this 
extra labor in the northern states, providing it 
is cut as early as September, as it will cure 
readily in the windrow if the weather is good. 

Yield and composition of cowpeas 

The yield of forage under the various condi- 
tions of soil, season and time of harvesting, will 
naturally vary widely, ranging from four to 
twelve tons per acre, with a probable average 
of eight tons on good soils. The yield of dry 
matter and actual nutrients increase as the plant 
approaches maturity. On the average, the green 
forage will contain about 16 per cent of dry 
matter. Following is an average analysis: 



TEE COWPEA • 263 

One ton ^" average 

Forage eo„.,.i„s -^^ Hay 

Per cent Lbs. Lbs. Per cent 

Water 83.60 10.70 

Dry matter 16.40 328 2,624 89.30 

Ether extract 0.40 8 64 2.20 

Crude fiber 4.80 96 768 20.10 

Crude protein 2.40 48 384 16.60 

Ash 1.70 34 272 7.50 

Nitrogen -free extract . . . 7.10 142 1,136 42.90 



Cowpea pasture and hay 

When the crop is not needed for soiling, it 
may be used for i3asture or hay. It makes excel- 
lent pasture, and, if the animals are not allowed 
to feed it too closely in the beginning, it will 
furnish good grazing for six to eight weeks, as 
the tendency of the plant is to throw out new 
runners when the main stems are removed. Pas- 
turing is wasteful, however, as the animals tramp 
much of the herbage into the earth, besides kill- 
ing some of the plants. It is better practice to 
make the crop into hay, as it makes a very pala- 
table and highly digestible product, and one 
which, because of its high content of protein, 
can be used to substitute for concentrated feeds. 

The cowpea is one of the most useful forms 
of winter forage, as it can be fed in considerable 
quantity, and because it possesses characteristics 
which make it a good substitute for purchased 
protein feeds. Experiments at the New Jersey, 



264 FOB AGE CROPS 

Tennessee and Alabama Stations show that cow- 
pea hay can be very profitably substituted in 
part for concentrated feeds for dairy animals, 
although it was shown to be advisable to use a 
little feed in the ration. 



SOYBEANS 

The soybean is from Japan, where it is one of 
the staple crops. It is now generally grown in 
the southern coast and middle states. Soybeans 
are also grown successfully in Illinois, Michigan 
and Wisconsin, being better adapted to the climatic 
conditions of those states than cowpeas. The soy- 
bean has a strong central root, stiff stems, broad 
leaves, and somewhat resembles the ordinary bean, 
although it is larger and bushier in form. The 
plants may be dwarf and early maturing, or late 
and tall, but in no case do they have the vining 
and trailing characteristics of cowpeas. They are 
strictly upright plants. There are a number of 
varieties. The Green seems to be the variety most 
gener-Jly used. 

Seeding^ growth and use 

The plant resembles the cowpea in many of 
its characteristics; namely, that it should not 
be seeded until the soil is warm, and when grown 



THE SOYBEAN 265 

for forage it should preferably be planted in rows 
in order that it may be tilled, although it may be 
seeded broadcast. The quantity of seed per acre 
varies from one to one and one -quarter bushels 
broadcast, depending on how well the seeds are 
covered. When seeded in rows, the quantity may 
be reduced to one-half bushel or three pecks per 
acre. The land should be put in good condition, 
and fertilized as advised for cowpeas, that the 
germination may be prompt. 

For forage purposes it does not possess charac- 
teristics very different from those mentioned for 
cowpeas. Experience thus far shows that the soy- 
bean is slightly more difificult to handle, and that 
the yields are not so heavy, but the plant contains 
more nitrogen in the dry matter than the cowpea. 
It has been grown for forage when there has been 
a scarcity of cowpea seed, and many prefer it to 
the cowpea because it is easier to harvest. Its 
period of growth is about the same as for cowpeas, 
reaching its best condition in two and one -half to 
three months. The stems are stiff and hard, and 
the entire plant is not so palatable as the cow- 
pea, although, owing to the abundance of large 
leaves, the feeding value is quite as high as that 
of the cowpea; in fact, at the stage of growth 
best for forage, it is richer in dry matter and 
protein than the cowpea. Yields of forage on 
good soils average lower than the cowpea, — about 



266 FOB AGE CROPS 

seven tons per acre. The average composition 
is as follows: ^„ „,,„,, 

CO""- SS 
Per cent Lbs. Lbs. 

Water 75.10 ... ... 

Dry matter 24.90 498 3,486 

Ether extract 1.00 20 140 

Crude fiber 6.70 134 938 

Crude protein 4.00 80 560 

Ash 2.60 52 364 

Nitrogen-free extract . . 10.60 212 1,484 

The soybean is not so well adapted to pasture 
as the cowpea, but it is quite as good for hay and 
less difficult to cure. The crop is well worthy of 
wider use. 

VELVET BEAN 

The velvet bean has attracted much attention 
lately in the southern states. In Florida it has 
been one of the most useful of the forage plants. 
It grows well on light, sandy land, and the yield 
is ordinarily larger than that of the cowpea. 

Under favorable conditions the vines reach a 
length of twenty to thirty feet. The season of 
growth is much longer, and for that reason the 
seed cannot be matured except in the most south- 
ern states. Experiments in the middle and east- 
ern states show that it is not well adapted to 
those sections, and does not make as satisfactory 
crop for any purpose as the cowpea. It is used as 
a green -manure and cover-crop in the South. 



VETCH FOR FORAGE 269 

VETCHES 

There are two species of vetch that have re- 
cently come mto considerable use. In the use of 
vetches for any of the purposes mentioned, care 
should be used to prevent the plant from ripening 
and re -seeding the land. In some states, notably 
Michigan, vetch has become a nuisance as a weed, 
and is said to have made profitable wheat -growing 
impossible in certain sections. Since it is not pos- 
sible to separate the vetch readily from wheat, the 
latter is ruined for milling purposes. When grown 
only for green forage purposes, the danger is not 
formidable. 

Spring vetch 

The spring vetch or tare ( Vicia saliva) may 
be substituted for Canada field peas, in a mix- 
ture with oats; and in the northern states, 
where the pea-louse has been very destructive, 
it serves an excellent purpose. It is sown in 
spring or early summer, and does not survive the 
winter. The preparation of soil should be practi- 
cally the same as that recommended for oats and 
peas. Fertilizers should also be of the same char- 
acter. Experiments indicate that one bushel of 
seed, with one to one and one -half bushels of oats 
per acre makes a good mixture, although the smal- 
ler quantity of oats will be better on good land, as 



270 FORAGE CHOPS 

too large seeding of oats prevents a large growth 
of the vetch. The plant is trailing in habit. If 
conditions are favorable, it will make a very much 
thicker growth than the Canada field pea, and pro- 
vide excellent forage, being very palatable and 
highly digestible when in the best stage for feed- 
ing. It requires a longer period for maturing, and 
this extends the time during which the forage 
may be used, — a very important advantage, par- 
ticularly in dry seasons. 

The composition of the oat -and -vetch forage 
does not differ greatly from that of the oats-and- 
peas. The crop may also be made into hay of an 
excellent quality, and it is readily cured. 

Hairy or winter vetch 

The sand, winter or hairy vetch ( Vicia villosa) 
is another species that thrives on poor soils, and 
is useful as an early spring forage, withstanding 
the winter and growing in spring. Owing to its 
trailing habit, it should not be seeded alone 
(except as a green- manure or cover- crop), but 
with rye or wheat, preferably wheat for the cen- 
tral states, in August or September. It is desir- 
able to have the soil well prepared in order to 
encourage an early and rapid fall growth, as well 
as to ensure a large crop in spring. It should be 
seeded at the rate of about one -half to one bushel 



HAIBY VETCH 271 

per acre, with the wheat or rye, the former beiDg 
sown at the rate of one bushel per acre and the 
latter at the rate of three -fourths of a bushel per 
acre. It will be one of the first crops ready for 
use in spring, as it matures with the cereal. 

The chief advantage of the use of hairy vetch 
with rye or wheat lies in the fact that a larger 
crop of forage may be secured than when the 
cereal is grown alone. The chief disadvantage of 
this crop is the expensiveness of the seed, but this 
difficulty will doubtless be overcome as soon as 
the value of the crop is known and larger areas 
are grown. Owing to its very early growth it may 
be pastured to advantage when not convenient to 
use as a soiling crop, usually coming earlier than 
ordinary pastures are ready. Of course the quan- 
tity of forage will be less when used as pasture 
than when cut and carried to the barn. It is not 
so desirable for hay as the spring vetch, because 
good hay weather does not usually prevail. 

Composition of Hairy Vetch 



Water . . . . 
Dry matter . 




Per cent 

. 88.10 

11.90 


One ton 
contains 

Lbs. 

238 
10 
52 
70 
30 
76 


An 
ac] 
fui 


average 
re-yield 
inishes 

Lbs. 

1,190 


Ether extract 
Crude fiber . 





0.50 
2.60 
3.50 
1.50 
3.80 


50 
260 


Protein . . . 




350 


Ash 




150 


Nitrogen- free 


extract . 


380 



272 FORAGE CROPS 



BROAD OR HORSE BEAN 



This plant ( Vicia Faha, or Faba vulgaris) , 
probably native to northern Africa and south- 
west Asia, is often mentioned in American writ- 
ings, but it has never made much headway here. 
It is a stiff, erect-growing plant, wholly unlike 
the common bean in appearance. It grows two 
to four feet high. It produces large pods and 
big usually flat or flattish seeds. It is more like 
the pea than the bean in its relation to climate, 
as it withstands some frost. It has been cultivated 
from prehistoric times and its nativity is in 
doubt. It is much grown in Europe, primarily 
for forage purposes, although the seed may be 
used, both full grown and immature, for human 
food. It demands a cool climate and a long 
growing season and does not do well under the 
hot, dry summers of the United States. It is 
grown successfully in parts of Canada, where it 
has been used somewhat with corn and sunflower 
to make silage; this combination is known as the 
"Robertson mixture." This mixture does not seem 
to have made much headway. Frequently the 
plants are grown to full maturity and a meal made 
from the bean. 

Planting may be made early in spring in 
clay loams. The seed is sown in rows, twenty to 
twenty- eight inches apart, so as to allow for 



BROAD BEAN 273 

cultivation, which is especially important with 
this crop for conserving the moisture. Cultiva- 
tion is discontinued in the latter part of July. 
If the crop is in early enough, it will stand up 
well under the snow when used as a winter cover- 
crop, but will winter -kill. Seeding is done at 
the rate of six to eight pecks per acre. A good 
yield of beans is thirty bushels per acre. 

JAPAN CLOVER 

Japan clover {Lespedeza striata) is a native of 
Japan and China, introduced into the southern 
part of the United States about 1840, since which 
time it has spread throughout the southern states, 
where it has proved of great value as pasture, 
although it is frequently used also for hay when 
grown on good land. Japan clover is also a valu- 
able cover -crop and green -manure crop, as it is 
well adapted to light and poor lands and withstands 
drought well, growing and spreading when other 
plants die for lack of moisture. The plant thrives 
as far west as Kansas, and as far north as Mary- 
land, although it does best from Virginia south- 
ward, where it has spread naturall3^ Under 
ordinary conditions of growth, it does not reach 
a height of more than ten to twelve inches, and on 
very poor land it simply spreads over the ground. 
Until recently, it was allowed to seed naturally, or 

K 



274 FOBAGE CHOPS 

was seeded alone, especially on the poorer lands, 
the custom bemg simply to harrow the land and 
broadcast about twelve pounds of seed per acre, 
without covering. The seed should not be sown 
until all danger of freezing is past, as the young 
plants are tender and will be destroyed by a light 
frost. Where its advantages as a forage plant are 
appreciated, it is now often made a part of a mix- 
ture with grass, and four to five pounds of seed 
are used per acre. 

On good land and well cared for, Japan clover 
will reach a height of two feet or more, and can 
be readily used for soiling or for hay. It is ready 
for use about the middle of June as far north as 
Virginia, and earlier in the more southern states, 
and makes good pasture as late as November. As 
with white clover, it should be kept pastured 
closely for best results, and when so managed is 
relished by all grazing stock. 

When grown for hay, the common practice is 
not to cut until some of the seeds on the lower 
part of the i3lant are ripe, which permits it to 
reseed. While more easily cured than the red 
clover, it should be handled in practically the same 
way in order to prevent losses of leaves, which are 
richer in protein than the stems. As a soil reno- 
vator alone, it is well worthy greater attention 
than is now given it, though valuable, also^ as 
pasture, hay and seed crop. 



CHAPTER XV 

BOOT- CROPS 

English agriculture is noted for its root-crops. 
These crops become a regular part of rotation 
systems. They thrive in the cool moist seasons 
of that country. In America they have not re- 
ceived the attention that they deserve, particu- 
larly in the northern states and Canada, although 
in the latter country they are better appreciated 
than in the United States. They afford good 
nutrient materials in most wholesome and diges- 
tible forms, and because of their succulence they 
become a good adjunct to dry and concentrated 
feeds. 

"The reason why the production of roots is of 
special interest in the north Atlantic states," as 
expressed in a recent Cornell bulletin (Root- crops 
for Stock-feeding, Bulletin 243), is "that these 
states raise a comparatively large amount of 
roughage and a small amount of concentrates, 
while the north central states raise a large 
amount of cereals or concentrates in proportion to 
hay and forage, as shown in the following table of 
the ratio of concentrates to roughage in the jiorth 

(275) 



North 
Atlfiiitic 


North 
Central 


4.4 


69.2 


15.6 


49.0 


22.0 


58.5 


.55 


1.55 


1.95 


1.10 



276 FOBAGE CROPS 

Atlantic and north central states, according to the 
census of 1900: 



All cereals except wheat, million tons 

All hay and forage, million tons 15.6 

Per cent of cereals, except wheat .... 
Tons cereals except wheat, per animal unit 
Tons hay and forago, pei" animal unit . . 

Total tons of food per animal unit (of 

about 1,000 lbs. live weight) . . . 2.50 2.65 

"The significance of this table is further em- 
phasized when the superior feeding value of 
concentrates is fully understood. For example, 
experiments made by Zuntz, of Germany, show 
that when clover hay was fed to horses, forty-one 
pounds were digested out of each hundred pounds 
of hay fed, while, when oats were fed, sixty- two 
pounds were digested, or 50 per cent more. It 
was found, however, that it required the energy of 
twenty- four pounds of the forty- one pounds of 
hay digested to chew and digest the hay, leaving 
the net nutritive value at seventeen pounds. On 
the other hand, it required only twelve pounds 
of the sixty -two pounds of oats to masticate 
and digest the oats, leaving fifty pounds of oats 
available for producing energy or work. In other 
words, the oats had three times the value of the 
clover hay for the production of work in horses. 
The energy used up in chewing and digesting 



SIGNIFICANCE OF BOOT-CBOPPINO 277 

food is manifested in heat and helps to keep the 
animal warm, and is therefore not entirely lost 
when tlie ration is merely for maintenance. But 
since, in any liberal feeding for the production 
of work, the production of meat, or of milk, 
the amount of heat thus produced is sufficient 
to keep the animal warm, the figures given above 
may be taken as representing their true food 
value. 

"One of the objections to roots as a food prod- 
uct lies in the fact of their high water content. 
This limits the amount which may be fed and be- 
comes of special importance where they are fed in 
connection with silage. On account of this high 
water content it will not be practicable to feed a 
sufficient amount entirely to take the place of the 
cereals, even should this be desirable for other 
reasons. The trend of experimental evidence is 
that the feeding value of the different types and 
varieties of root-crops depends more largely on the 
percentage of dry matter than on any other factor ; 
for example, the percentage of dry matter appar- 
ently modifies their feeding value more largely than 
the percentage of sugar. 

"The problem in New York state is whether we 
can afford to raise roots, and, if so, what kind. 
The following table shows the minimum average 
and maximum number of pounds of dry matter 
per acre which was obtained at the Cornell Experi- 



278 FORAGE CROPS 

merit Station in 1904, 1905 and 1906 from sowings 
made during May: 

Minimum Average Maximum 

Mangels 2,168 5,155 8,453 

Half-sugar mangels . 5,480 5,880 6,440 

Sugar-beets .... 6,014 7,090 8,090 

Rutabagas 3,537 4,331 5,079 

Hybrid turnips . . . 2,584 3,694 5,111 

Common turnips . . 1,710 2,680 3,500 

Kohlrabi 3,570 4,070 4,540 

Cabbages 4,076 4,662 5,588 

Carrots 1,878 3,134 4,379 

Parsnips 2,080 3,130 3,680 

"The estimated yield of grain from flint corn, 
the same seasons, at this station, was approxi- 
mately 2,000 pounds; while the yield of dry mat- 
ter in silage from dent corn was about 4,000 
pounds. It is probable that the season of 1904 was 
relatively favorable to the production of roots as 
compared to Indian corn, but this was not true of 
1905 and 1906. During the latter years the aver- 
age yields from roots were better than in 1904, 
although the land used was conceded by all inter- 
ested to be less favorable than that used in 1904. 

"The present high price of cereals is a factor in 
favor of the production of root- crops. If corn 
meal continues to be worth twenty dollars a ton, 
or more, in New York state, economy in the pro- 
duction of roots would be iudicated, while, if the 
price should fall to ten dollars a ton, corn meal 
would probably be the cheaper source of concen- 



MANOEL-WUBZELS 279 

trates. The serious handicap to the raising of root- 
crops is the fact that, with present cultural meth- 
ods, a large amount of hand- labor is required. 
The point of view that it is desired here to empha- 
size is that, while roots may not be economically 
raised as a substitute for silage or other coarse 
fodders, it may be economical to raise them in 
New York state as a partial substitute for concen- 
trates, particularly the cereal grains." 

MANGELS 

Perhaps there is no other one crop that has 
had so wide use as succulent winter forage as 
mangels, although they have had less popularity 
since the general introduction of the silo. It is 
a crop that can be grown to advantage, however, 
and it possesses many characteristics that make 
it an extremely valuable product, even when 
sila2:e is also used. 



"&' 



Varieties of mangels 

There are many varieties differing but slightly, 
as, for example, the Golden Tankard, Mammoth 
Long Red, Red Globe and Yellow Globe, any 
of which will answer for forage purposes. 

Cornell experiments^ give the following indica- 

1 Culture and Varieties of Roots for Stock feeding, Bulletin 244. 



280 FOBAQM aiiopa 

tions of varieties: "Among the mangels, all of the 
long varieties seem to be able to produce good 
yields but have various defects. The Globe and 
Tankard varieties usually contain a higher per- 
centage of water and are low in dry matter 
content. Two half- sugar mangels, Vilmorin Half- 
sugar Rosy and Carter Half- sugar, are recom- 
mended as suitable stock to use for breeding 
American strains. Sugar-beets, although rich in 
dry matter, are generally so much more expensive 
to harvest that the writers are not prepared to 
advocate their extensive use for stock -feedin^:." 



'to 



Land, manures and fertilisers 

In the culture of this crop, particular pains 
should be taken to provide a deep surface soil, 
as the deeper the soil the greater will be the 
proportion of root grown under the ground. Be- 
sides, the crop requires a large area of soil, in 
order to supply the rather exorbitant demands 
for plant-food. When the best yields are ob- 
tained, it is frequently recommended to subsoil 
at least eighteen inches, in order that the fine 
rootlets may penetrate to lower depths. In order 
to ensure a large yield, the crop should be well 
supplied with all the constituents of plant-food 
in available forms. When the land is heavy, it 
should preferably be plowed deep m the fall, and 



MANGELS 281 

covered with manure at the rate of ei^i^ht to ten 
tons per acre. This should be worked into the 
soil early in the spring, and the whole surface 
thoroughly cultivated, and fertilizers applied con- 
taining a high content of nitrogen. A good 
formula should carry nitrogen, 4 per cent; phos- 
phoric acid (available), 10 per cent; potash, G per 
cent. If manure is used as recommended, a dress- 
ing of 400 pounds per acre of this fertilizer at time 
of seeding may be made with advantage, even on 
jrood soils. 



to 



Seeding and handling 

The quantity of seed is five to eight pounds per 
acre. The seed does not germinate quickly, and 
early growth is slow and, as a consequence, early 
cultivation is not possible, because the rows cannot 
be readily followed ; therefore weeds take posses- 
sion and make hand- labor necessary. It has been 
suggested that a little buckwheat be added to 
the seed; this plant germinates quickly, and the 
broad leaves clearly mark the row, making earlier 
cultivation possible. 

Mangels should be sown in rows two to two 
and one -half feet apart in May or early June, and, 
after well started, the plants should be thinned to 
eight to ten inches apart in the row. The cultiva- 
tion should be frequent, and, early in the season, 
relatively deep, in order that the soil may be in 



282 FOEAOMJ CROPS 

the very best condition for absorbing and retaining 
moisture, as well as to remove all weeds. 

The beets should be harvested as soon as frost 
occurs. In order to preserve them for winter, 
they may be stored in the field by placing in cov- 
ered heaps from five to seven feet high, although 
the better plan is to remove after thoroughly dry 
to a root- cellar in which they are not liable to 
freeze and the temperature is not too high. 

Composition and use of mangels 

As with all root-crops, the content of dry matter 
is relatively low, nsually not more than 8 to 10 per 
cent. The nutrients are highly digestible, how- 
ever, and when associated with so lai'ge an amount 
of water they possess a very high value, particu- 
larly in furnishing food in a wholesome form. 
They are extremely palatable, and when otherwise 
only dry feeds would be used, they answer a good 
purx)ose in keeping animals in condition, as well 
as stimulating the milk flow and the laying on of 
fat. They are very nseful for cows, hogs, chickens 
and practically for all other kinds of farm stock. 
Because of their adaptability, the nse of mangels 
is increasiug in many parts of the country, espe- 
cially on small farms wdiere but few animals are 
kept and where the labor is performed by members 
of the family. 



MANGELS 283 

Average Composition of Mangels 



An average 
contains 



One ton . , , 

acre-yield 

furnishes 

Per cent Lbs. Lbs. 

Water 90.90 ... ... 

Dry matter 9.10 182 3,(540 

Ether extract 0.20 4 80 

Crude fiber 90 18 360 

Protein 1.40 28 560 

Ash "... 1.10 22 440 

Nitrogeu-free extract . . 5.50 110 2,200 

A recent Cornell bulletin (No. 243) quotes the 
following experiments on the value of mangels for 
milk: "Rather extensive Danish experiments indi- 
cate that a pound of dry matter in roots is about 
equal to one pound of the cereal grains, or to 
three-fourths of a pound of cotton-seed meal, when 
fed to milch cows. In these trials no sila^'e was 
fed, the basal ration in each case consisting of six 
and one-half pounds of hay and ten pounds of 
straw per cow. The experiment was so conducted 
as to eliminate, apparently, the factor of succu- 
lence, as shown by the following table of average 
of six experiments including about 150 cows dur- 
ing several months. Basal ration six and one-half 
pounds hay, ten pounds straw: 

Cereal ^^"o/- ^T'^f"^ Nntritive ^'l''}^, 
•„„ seed m root ,- vield 

2^^^°« meal mangels . "^-''^''^ of milk 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs, 

Lot A . . . 7 1.5 4.5 1:8-9 22.4 

Lot B . . . 4 4.5 4.5 1:5-5.5 23.7 

Lot C . . . 4 1.5 7.5 1:8-9 22.5 

LotD . . . 1 4.5 7.5 1:5-5.5 24.2 



284 FoiiAOE cMOPa 

"It will be noted that all the cows were fed 
roots, but two lots were fed roots containing seven 
and one-half pounds of dry matter, equal to about 
sixty- five pounds of fresh roots, instead of four 
and one -half pounds of dry matter, equal to about 
forty pounds of fresh roots. The additional three 
pounds of dry matter in the first- mentioned cases 
gave as good results as an equal amount of cereal 
grains, the cereals consisting either of Indian corn 
or of a mixture of barley, oats and rye. Roots, like 
the cereals, are highly digestible, perhaps even 
more digestible than the cereal grains, and herein 
probably lies their high value. From the stand- 
point of the results which they produce, the roots 
may be looked on as watered concentrates. They 
have, apparently, a high net available energy." 

Yield of mangels per acre 

When conditions are favorable, the tonnage 
yield is very much greater than can be secured 
from corn or other forage crops, frequently reach- 
ing as high as twenty-five to thirty tons per acre, 
although the total dry matter is much less than for 
a smaller tonnage of corn, cowpeas, or other suc- 
culent forage, and the labor involved is relatively 
greater per unit of dry matter. The greater ex- 
pense of the mangel crop is due in large part to 
the extra cost of cultivation. 



MANGELS AS FORAGE 285 

Mangels versus corn 

The relative production of dry matter in a crop 
of fodder corn and in mangels is well shown by an 
experiment made by the New Jersey Station in 
1894. The soil was good, and the plots on which 
the crops were grown similar in character. The 
tonnage yield and yield of nutrients per acre were 
as follows: 

/-,.•■ AC nf 1 Corn Mangels Corn forage 

Containing pounds of Mangels ^^^^^^ increase increase 

Weight of green crop . . 56,600 20,000 36,000 . . . 

Dry matter 4,684 6,130 . . . 1,446 

Crude fat 33.9 152.2 . . . 118.3 

Crude fiber 379.2 1,484.7 . . . 1,105.5 

Crude protein 684.9 468.9 216.0 . . . 

Crude ash 503.7 243.8 259.9 . . . 

Carbohydrates 3,112.6 3,780.2 . . . 667.6 

The first point of importance shown by this 
comparison is that the total dry matter contained 
in the crop of mangels was nearly 25 per cent less 
than in the fodder corn; and for every pound of 
dry matter contained in the crop it was necessary 
to handle twelve pounds of water, while in the 
corn fodder the proportion of dry matter to water 
was as 1 to 3.2. It is shown, also, that in feed 
constituents the corn fodder furnished nearly five 
thnes as much crude fat, and four times as much 
crude fiber as the mangels and 20 per cent more 
carbohydrates. The feed constituent furnished 
in greatest amount by the mangels is crude pro- 



286 FOB AGE CBOPS 

tein, of which more than 50 per cent was shown 
by analysis to exist in the form of amides, com- 
pounds less valuable than true albuminoids. 

It must be remembered, however, that man- 
gels possess a value in addition to the actual 
food constituents contained in them, due to suc- 
culence and physical character, which it is im- 
possible to measure in definite terms, particularly 
for winter feeding in connection with dr}^ fod- 
ders. Under certain circumstances their produc- 
tion is desirable, even though the cost of dry 
matter exceeds that in corn or clover, mainly be- 
cause of their dietetic eifect and of the greater 
digestibility of the dry matter. 

SUGAR-BEET 

Sugar-beets are often recommended in place 
of mangels, largely because they contain a 
much higher percentage of dry matter, consist- 
ing largely of sugar. Varieties highly recom- 
mended by seedsmen are Queen of Denmark, 
White Rose Top and White Green Top, although 
those ordinarily grown for sugar are quite as 
useful. The preparation of land and fertilization 
should be practically the same as for the man- 
gels. The seeding should be somewhat different, 
as at least twenty pounds of seed is required per 
acre. Cultivation and harvesting and storing 



SUGAR-BEETS 287 

may be practically the same as recommended for 
mangels. 

Yields range from ten to twenty- five tons per 
acre. They contain on the average 18 per cent of 
dry matter, thus getting in one ton nearly twice as 
much nutriment as is contained in two tons of 
mangels. They may be fed with dry foods at the 
rate of fifty to sixty pounds per cow. They are 
a good source of carbohydrates, aside from the 
dietetic value that they possess in quite as great 
degree as mangels. When only a few animals 
are kept, or when conditions of growth are most 
favorable and labor abundant, the growing of 
either sugar-beets or mangels is recommended as 
a source of succulent winter forage. 

Composition of Sugar-beets 

One ton An average 

Per cent Lbs. Lbs. 

Water 82.00 ... ... 

Dry matter 18.00 360 4,320 

Ether extract 0.10 2 24 

Crude fiber 1.10 22 264 

Protein 1.60 32 384 

Ash 1.20 24 288 

Nitrogen-free extract . . . 14.00 280 3,360 

CARROT 

The carrot is frequently grown for succulent 
winter food, particularly for horses, for which 
purpose it is excellent. As for other root- crops, 



1>88 FORAGE CROPS 

the soil should be deep and well fertilized, as it 
is impossible to grow a good crop on poor soil. 
The main varieties for stock -feeding are Long 
Orange, Long White and Short White. These 
may be planted from the middle of May to the 
middle of June, at the rate of about one and 
one -half pounds of seed per acre, in rows eighteen 
inches to two feet apart. The early culture re- 
quires considerable care, as the growth is slow, 
which usually makes it necessary to hoe between 
the rows. They should be thinned to about six 
to eight inches in the row. 

Carrots are useful chiefly as an appetizer, and 
are not fed in large quantities. They should V)e 
harvested before freezing weather, and stored in 
a dry, cool place. 

TURNIP AND RUTABAGA 

Turnips may be used as a catch-crop late in 
the season, and they are useful both for late fall 
and for winter feeding. They are particularly 
useful for sheep, and also, if carefully used, for 
dairy cows. They are very watery, and do not 
contribute a large amount of actual nutriment. 
They stimulate milk flow, and their action in 
this respect is responsible in large degree for the 
belief that they possess superior nutrient qualities. 

The varieties mainly grown for feeding are the 



TUENiPS 289 

Purple -top and Yellow Globe. The Cow Horn is 
highly recommended as a catch- crop, because it 
roots more deeply, thus bringing to the surface 
plant-food from lower layers. 

As a catch-crop, turnips may be sown after 
potatoes, tomatoes or other early crop, or seeded 
in corn at the last cultivation, serving both to con- 
serve plant-food and provide a succulent feed. 
The yield varies widely. AVhen grown primarily 
for forage and the soil liberally fertilized, as high 
as thirty tons per acre are recorded. The turnip 
does not seem to be able to obtain the necessary 
phosphates so readily as some other crops ; there- 
fore it is especially benefited by applications of 
superphosphates. Lands in good condition in 
other respects may grow a maximum crop of 
turnips with additions of phosphate alone, applied 
at the rate of 250 pounds per acre of acid phos- 
phate. Under average conditions, however, an 
application of nitrogen and potash should accom- 
pany the phosphate. 

Turnips may be sown either broadcast or in 
drills; when seeded as catch- crops the broadcast 
method is practiced and seed used at the rate of 
two to three pounds per acre. Where grown for 
forage, they should be in drills, seeded at the rate 
of one pound per acre, and thinned to six inches 
in the row, and cultivated as other crops. 

The feeding of turnips to dairy cows, should be 



290 FORAGE CROPS 

made after the milking, as they are likely to add 
distasteful flavors if fed at other times. 

Composition of Turnips 





Per cent 


One ton 
contains 

Lbs. 


An average 

acre-yield 

fnrnishes 

Lbs. 


Water 


. . 90.50 


. . 


... 


Dry matter 


. . . 9.50 


190 


2,850 


Ether extract .... 


. . . 0.20 


4 


60 


Crude fiber 


. . . 1.20 


24 


300 


Protein 


. . . 1.10 


22 

16 

124 


330 


Ash 


. . . 0.80 


240 


Nitrogen-free extract 


. . . 6.20 


1,860 




POTATO 







It is not frequent that it pays to grow potatoes 
for stock-feeding ; still it often happens that a large 
proportion of the crop is not marketable because 
of the small size of the tubers, when they can then 
be utilized for cattle or pig feeding. 

Potatoes contain about 28 per cent of dry mat- 
ter, are very succulent and palatable, and exercise 
a very marked effect on milk production. They 
may be fed raw or steamed; if raw, they should 
be cut, to avoid danger from choking. They 
should be fed, at first, in small quantities, although 
the amount may be gradually increased to forty to 
sixty pounds per day. They should be washed 
and thoroughly cleansed before, feeding. Potatoes 
should always be mixed with dry feed, the amount 
added being in proportion to the needs of the 



POTATOES 291 

animal, and the potatoes not in such excess as to 
cause the animals to scour, which frequently 
occurs if too large quantities are used. 

SWEET POTATO 

Sweet potatoes are also an excellent food for 
cattle and hogs. In wet seasons, and on heavy 
soils, the crop is liable to be "rooty," that is, the 
potatoes are not merchantable, although of good 
size. These imperfect roots may be fed in the 
same way as the white potato, although they usu- 
ally contain a little more dry matter and need not 
be fed in such large quantities. In the absence of 
other succulent feed they contribute very materi- 
ally to the improvement of the ration. 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE CABBAGE TRIBE 

Several members of the mustai'd family (Cru- 
cifenB) of the cabbage kind are useful forage 
plants, and their cultivation seems to be increas- 
ing. In general feeding practice they may be 
compared with root -crops. In fact, kohlrabi is 
often classed with root -crops, and well it may be, 
since it is very closely allied to the turnips and 
rutabagas, differing chiefly in having the thickened 
part above ground rather than below ground. The 
leading cabbage -like forage plants are rape, cab- 
bage and kohlrabi. The kales are not nmch grown 
for forage in North America. Their culture does 
not differ greatly from that of rape. Thousand- 
headed kale is the kind mostly recommended, but 
it does not appear to have any advantage over 
rape for forage. 

RAPE 

As a forage plant rape is a recent introduction 
into the United States. Several varieties have 
long been grown in Europe and other countries 
for forage purposes. Of the various kinds, but 
two are generally grown, — Dwarf (Dwarf Essex) 

(292) 



GROWING OF BAPE 293 

and Giant. The former is more generally nseful, 
especially on the light, chalky lands of England, 
and it is the only one that has given satisfaction 
in this country. The other is grown on strong 
lands, and occupies a full place in the rotation. 
Rape has taken the place of turnips to some 
extent, and is very similar in its management. 
All varieties are annual, but in England the}^ 
sometimes do not mature seeds the first season. 
The advantages of rape are: (1) it is well adapted 
to most soils; (2) it can be seeded either in spring 
or summer, serving an excellent purpose as a 
catch-crop and for green-forage; (3) the expense 
of seed and seeding is low; (4) it is especially 
useful for sheep and swine, although with care it 
may be profitably fed to dairy cattle. 

Freparation of land^ and seeding 

The seed of rape is small, and the preparation 
of land is therefore very important. The land 
should be deeply plowed, covering all vegetable 
matter, thoroughly pulverized, and the surface soil 
made extremely fine previous to seeding. 

Although rape does well on soils of medium 
fertility, the best results are secured when they 
are naturally rich, or have been well fertilized. 
When grown for forage, an application of barn- 
yard manure at the rate of eight tons per acre> 



294 FOBAGI] CHOPS 

well worked into the surface soil, is desirable, as 
the plant is a voracious feeder. For its best 
growth it must have abundance of available nitro- 
gen. Hence, if manures are not readily obtainable, 
an application of fertilizers rich in nitrogen should 
be applied. Experience has shown that a fertilizer 
containing 

Nitrogen 5 per cent 

Phosphoric acid (available) 8 per cent 

Potash 9 per cent 

applied at the rate of 600 pounds per acre, will 
supply the food in good proportions. Should the 
season be unfavorable for rapid growth, an addi- 
tional application of 100 pounds per acre of nitrate 
of soda when plants have well started will stimu- 
late growth and help to ensure a large crop. This 
top-dressing of nitrate should be made when the 
plants are dry. 

The rape may be seeded either in drills or 
broadcast any time from early in May for pastur- 
ing in July or August, or as late as July or 
August for late summer and fall pasture and also 
for cover-crops. When used for a cover-crop, the 
broadcast method is probably the better. When a 
large yield of succulent forage is desired, it is 
better to plant in drills two to two and one -half 
feet apart, as this permits early and thorough cul- 
tivation. The quantity of seed to be used is to be 
determined by the condition of soil and weather. 



SEEDING OF RAPE 295 

The quantity should be increased in dry weather 
and on poor lands. When sown broadcast, three 
to ^YQ pounds per acre will be sufficient, and when 
sown in drills from one to two pounds is recom- 
mended. For soiling purposes, it should prefera- 
bly be seeded in drills and about the time that 
corn is seeded, or when time of severe freezing is 
past. Machinery adapted for planting small seeds 
can be successful!}^ used for this purpose. 

Tillage should begin as soon as the plants are 
well started, and repeated as frequently as possible 
until the plants have arrived at such stage of 
growth as will not permit of further cultivation 
without injury. Ordinary cultivators will answer 
for the work, but one that will cut close to the line 
of the row, without covering the plants, is the 
best, especially in the earlier stages of growth. 
As with corn, the first cultivation should be deep 
and gradually become shallow as the roots take 
possession of the soil. 

Feeding value of rape crop 

The value of rape as forage is chiefly as a 
soiling crop or for pasture; that is, it cannot be 
harvested and preserved with advantage. When 
used as a soiling crop, it may be cut with a mower 
and placed in heaps, which will remain good for 
two or three days. The following description of 



296 FORAGE CROPS 

rape as a pasture for sheep is in Farmers' Bulletin 
No. 11, of the United States Department of 
Agriculture : 

"Rape is unrivaled as a pasture for sheep in 
autumn in those parts of this continent where it 
can be successfully grown. As a fattening food in 
the field it is without a rival in point of cheapness 
or effectiveness. The sheep that pasture upon it 
do the harvesting in a most effective manner, and 
with but little cost to the owner; and the manure 
made from it is distributed over the field which 
produced the crop, and in a form which is readily 
available for the plants of the succeeding crops. 
While rape thus grown and fed does not add fer- 
tility to the soil, unless in the plant -food it brings 
up from the subsoil, it does not detract from the 
fertility when the sheep which eat it off are in- 
closed upon it. When rape can be successfully 
grown as a pasture, the necessity for sending 
sheep and lambs to the market in a lean condition 
will be removed, and the numbers that may yet be 
fattened upon it in this country will only be limited 
prol)ably by the inclination of the farmers and the 
demands of the market. Four to five millions of 
acres of arable land would suffice to grow rape 
enough to fatten all the sheep at present in the 
United States. 

"The manner of feeding off the rape when pas- 
tured by sheep and lambs is in outline as follows: 



THE FEEDING OF EAPE 297 

"They should be tagged before being turned in 
upon the rape, or soon after, as they are liable to 
become purged to some extent at the first. They 
should not be turned in upon the rape when hungry 
at any time, as they may so gorge themselves that 
bloating, followed by death, may ensue. When 
they have access to an old grass pasture at the 
same time, the grass eaten by them is usually very 
effective in preventing scours and other disorders 
arising from impaired digestion. When the ani- 
mals are once turned in upon the rape it is not 
necessary to remove them, unless in time of severe 
and prolonged storms of rain or sleet. At such 
times they may be given the protection of sheds 
when these are available, otherwise the shelter of 
a grove may prove of some service. After they 
have fed upon rape from two to two and a half 
months they will be ready for market. When it is 
desired to carry on the lambs into the winter 
months after the season for pasturing is over, they 
will go on improving in fine form where the man- 
agement is judicious. In other w^ords, pasturing 
on rape is an excellent preparation for winter 
feeding. 

"The sheep or lambs should be visited two or 
three times a day by the shepherd. This may be 
done on foot when the flocks are small, but when 
feeding over large areas the aid of a saddle horse 
should be called in. When sheep get fat and 



298 FOBAQE CROPS 

heavy they are somewhat liable to roll over on the 
back and so perish. They do not require any 
water when feeding upon rape, but should have 
access to salt at will. 

"There is no limit to the numbers that may be 
put upon one field except its capacity to sustain 
them. The labor of hurdling does not seem neces- 
sary, as the sheep waste very little of the rape. 
When it has grown strong and rank, they feed 
around the borders. Like an invading army of 
crawling insects, they make clean work as they 
go, but when the crop is light and thin they feed 
in any portion of it." 

Rape is also good forage for cattle, although, 
when fed to dairy cows, it is lialjle to contribute 
undesirable flavors to milk and its products, even 
though fed after milking, as recommended for 
turnips or other members of this family of plants. 

In experiments at the Wisconsin Agricultural 
Experiment Station (Bulletin No. 115) to deter- 
mine the quality of cheese as affected by the feed- 
ing of rape and other forage plants, it was found 
that whenever the rape was fed before milking, 
there was, in most cases, a very pronounced rape 
flavor; when fed just after milking, there was also 
a very noticeable flavor. In no case was the 
amount fed larger than ten pounds per day, al- 
though it was all consumed between the morning 
and night milking. In fairness to the rape, it is 



RAPE FOB FEEDING AND CO FEB 299 

stated that other gi-eeii crops, as cabbage, corn and 
clover, also unfavorably mfluenced the flavor of 
cheese. 

To avoid danger of over-eating when pastwred, 
cattle should be allowed to feed in the rape for a 
short time at first, gradually extending the period 
until they may be left with reasonable safety. 
When fed as a soiling crop, this danger is avoided, 
as the quantity given is entirely under the control 
of the feeder. In feeding sheep or lambs on rape, 
they should preferably receive in addition a small 
ration of oats in the morning, although in many 
cases they may be fed exclusively on this plant. 

As a cover -crop 

Rape also possesses great advantages as a 
cover -crop, as it may be sown thickly as late as 
August for late fall pasture, and that which has 
not been used as forage will serve as cover in 
w^inter, preventing blowing and washing of the 
soil, and maintaining much better condition of soil 
in spring than if the land is left bare. It is de- 
stroyed by the cold in the northern and central 
states, and for this reason is not so advantageous 
as winter leguminous crops for this purpose. 
Nevertheless, because it can be seeded later and 
makes a large fall growth, it possesses very 
superior advantages as a cover -crop. 



300 FORAGE CROPS 

Yield and composition of rape 

Owing to the fact that rape is usually fed from 
the field, data in reference to yields are somewhat 
limited. At the Wisconsin and New Jersey Sta- 
tions, the yields have ranged, in round numbers, 
from twenty -three to twenty -seven tons per acre. 
When mature, rape contains more dry matter than 
most root -crops, as, for example, mangels and 
turnips and the total yield of nutrients is much 
greater. The average composition and yield of 
nutrients per acre are as follows: 

One ton Avei'age aere- 
contiiins yield tnvnishes 
Per cent Lbs. Lbs. 

Water 86.2 ... ... 

Dry matter 13.8 276 6,900 

Ether extract 0.5 10 250 

Crude fiber 1.9 38 950 

Protein 2.4 48 1,200 

Ash 1.8 36 900 

Nitrogen -free extract ... 7.2 144 3,600 

At the New Jersey Experiment Station, rape 
when at the best stage for soiling showed the 
following composition: 

Composition of Dwarf Essex Rape One ton 

contains 
Per cent Lbs. 

Water 84.50 . . . 

Dry matter 15.50 310 

Ether extract 0.50 10 

Crude fiber 2.60 52 

Protein 2.30 46 

Ash 2.00 40 

Nitrogen-free extract 8.20 164 



CABBAGE FOB FEEDING 301 



CABBAGE 



Cabbage has not been largely used in this coun- 
try for feeding live-stock, although knowledge as 
to its value for this purpose is undoubtedly ex- 
tending. That cabbage possesses a very distinct 
value as a succulent forage crop is well understood 
by those who grow the crop for the markets and 
use the refuse for feeding. The extra cost of grow- 
ing cabbage beyond that of growing turnips, rape 
or other similar plants has probably been the cause 
of a lack of attention to it. The disadvantages of 
cabbage as compared with the other better- known 
crops mentioned, are (1) the expense of planting; 
(2) the large plant -food requirements; (3) the 
difficulty of storing for winter use; (4) the low 
percentage of dry matter contained in the crop. 
Farmers with small areas for growing forage will 
find cabbage a useful green crop, as it is excellent 
feed for all farm animals, and it is a fairly well 
balanced ration for milch cows. 

The crop is adapted to a wide range of condi- 
tions, although its best growth may be obtained in 
cool, moist climates, as are found in the more 
northern states and in Canada, or in certain re- 
gions along the shore, as on Long Island, where 
the atmospheric conditions seem to be peculiarly 
favorable. The crop maybe planted in a rotation, 
taking the place of oats in a rotation of corn, oats. 



o 



02 FORAGE CROPS 



wheat and grass, as it is a good preparatory crop 
for wheat. 

Preparation of land for cabbage, and seeding 

As with rape, the land should be deeply plowed 
and thoroughly cultivated, the surface well com- 
pacted and made fine, in order that the plants may 
not suffer for lack of food as soon as set. If seed 
is used in the field, the germination should be 
prompt and the early growth rapid. Farmyard 
manures are excellent, and, as the cabbage is a 
gross feeder, applications of ten tons or more per 
acre should be made even on good soils, and this 
dressing supplemented with nitrate of soda. The 
fertilizers recommended for rape, both in kind and 
quantity, will answer for cabbage. Attempts should 
not be made to grow cabbage unless there is an 
abundance of available food. 

As a rule, cabbage is not grown from seed 
planted directly in the field, and it is doubtful 
whether its successful and profitable use as a 
forage crop will warrant the extra labor required 
in transplanting. Of course, more seed should 
be used when the seed is planted directly in the 
rows, thus permitting the removal of extra plants 
when they have reached such size as to determine 
their vitality. The seed, in this case, may be 
sown with the ordinary grain drill. The rows 
should be about two and one -half to three feet 



SEEDING OF CABBAGE 



303 



apart, and the plants thinned to about two feet 
apart in the row. The wider rows are preferable, 
because of the greater ease of using machinery. 
The depth at which the seed should be planted is 
preferably from one to two inches, according to 
the nature of the soil. Light lands should be rolled 



Number of thousands 



Surehead 92 per cent 




Autumn King 71 per cent . . 

Volgi 72 per cent 

Volga 73 per cent 

Ballhead 87 per cent 

Carter Model kohlrabi 96 per 
cent 

Purple Vienna kohlrabi 48 
per cent 

White Vienna kohlrabi 91 
per cent 



Fig. 50. Germination of commercial cabbage and kohlrabi seed and 
number of seeds in a pound (Cornell Experiment Station). The black 
bars show the number of thousand seeds in a pound; the light bars 
show the number of thousand that germinated. 



304 FORAGE CROPS 

immediately afterward, in order to draw tlie mois- 
tm'e to the surface and cause quick germination. 
From one to two pounds of seed per acre will be 
sufficient. 

The time of seeding will depend on the place it 
is given in the rotation. The young plants are 
tender, and should not in any case be planted in 
spring until all danger of freezing is past, although 
light frosts will do no injury. It is better to sow 
either early or late, since, if the cabbage is not 
seeded until late in the spring, the heads will not 
form so well, but, if sown very late, the plants 
will be hindered from making heads before cold 
weather sets in. 

In recent experiments at the Cornell University 
Experiment Station (Bulletin No. 242), the fol- 
lowing statements in reference to soil and seeding 
are made: 

"The soil considered best adapted is one rich 
in organic matter. Good crops can be raised on 
almost all types of soil, provided they contain the 
above requisite, are in good physical condition and 
contain an adequate although not excessive supply 
of water. Cabbages differ from almost any other 
farm crop in that their successful production is 
little influenced by the type of soil on which they 
are grown, or, in other words, they show a wide 
range of adaptability, so far as this factor is con- 
cerned. Undoubtedly, this power of adaptability 



CABBAGE 305 

to varying soils was an important factor in leading 
the primitive people of northern and central 
Europe to cultivate the cabbage, and, having been 
grown by the common people of these regions 
under all sorts of conditions of soil and climate, 
with more or less success, from prehistoric times 
until the present, this power of adaptability has 
been preserved. 

"The soil should be loose, friable and well pre- 
pared, deep fall -plowing being advised. An ap- 




Fig. 57. Solid (at the left) and loose heads of cabbage. 

plication of ten to twenty tons of manure per acre 
may be made before plowing. In spring, after 
harrowing, an application of well -slaked lime, at 
the rate of 1,000 pounds of quick- lime per acre, 
may be made, and harrowed in. The harrowing 
should be done before rain falls, otherwise the 
lime cannot be so readily incorporated with the soil. 
The advantages of lime for cabbage are recognized 
by many growers, and one of its benefits is its action 



306 FORAGE CROPS 

in destroying the fungus that causes clubroot. 
After the lime is harrowed in or before liming, it 
may be advisable to apply part of the fertilizers. 
Amounts frequently used are 400 to 800 pounds 
of acid phosphate, 15 to 16 per cent available, or 
its equivalent, i. e., 60 to 120 pounds of phos- 
phoric acid; 100 to 150 pounds of muriate of 
potash, and fifty pounds of nitrate of soda per 
acre. Manure, lime and fertilizers should be uni- 
formly applied. This important matter should not 
be neglected. If the seed is sown where the plants 
are to grow, the last harrowing should be done 
with the Meeker harrow or some tool which will 
fit the surface equally well." 

The bulletin also gives the yields of varieties 
for 1904, 1905 and 1906, and states that the fol- 
lowing are essentials of a high yield: 

"First, rotation. It matters little what crops 
be grown, provided they are in accordance with 
rational practice, the main point being that when 
cabbage crops follow each other in succession the 
soil is likely to become infested with the clubroot 
fungus, which will render it unfit for growing cab- 
bage for a number of years. Second, early plant- 
ing. This gives time for full growth and develop- 
ment of the heads. Third, uniform stand. The 
number of plants per acre may vary between seven 
and ten thousand. As with many other tilled 
crops, however, it is more essential to have the 



CABBAGE 307 

largest number of plants possible in the rows, and 
the rows wide enough apart to permit free use of 
horse implements in tillage. This may cut down 
the number of plants per acre, but it will be 
economical in the end." 

The points clearly brought out by these experi- 
ments are: (1) that the tonnage per acre of all 
varieties is large; (2) that the percentage of dry 
matter in all varieties is low; (3) that, as a rule, 
the larger the yield the lower the percentage of dry 
matter; (4) of the varieties usually grown, the 




Fig. 58. Forms of cabbage heads. In order: flat, spherical, 
obovate, oblong, conical. 

Surehead gave the largest yields in all the years, 
whether seeded in May and afterwards thinned, or 
whether grown as plants and transplanted in June ; 
(5) the early planting produces the best yield of 
both fresh substance and dry matter. The most 
important points shown by these data is that cab- 
bage does not compare favorably in yield of dry 
matter with many forage crops that require but 
two or three months for maturity, and which per- 
mits of two or three crops per year. With cabbage, 
one crop is practically all that can be grown, as it 
requires a long season. 



308 FOB AGE CHOPS 

The average composition and yield of nutrients 
per acre of cabbage are as follows: 

One ton Average acre- 
contains yield tui-nishes 
Per cent Lbs. Lbs. 

Water 90.5 ... ... 

Dry matter 9.5 195 4,800 

Ether extract 0.4 8 200 

Crude fiber 1.5 30 750 

Protein 2.4 48 1,200 

Ash 1.4 28 700 

Nitrogen-free extract . . 8.8 76 1,900 

The average analysis of cabbage, which is here 
given, shows a much higher content of dry matter 
than is recorded in the Cornell bulletin; and the 
average yield per acre, with this analysis, would 
doubtless be much lower than is recorded in the 
bulletin, probably nearer twenty -five tons per 
acre, the average here assumed. 



KOHLRABI 

Kohlrabi is another valuable member of the 
cabbage family, and one that may be fed without 
risk at any period of growth. It requires a rich 
soil in order to attain its best development. If the 
land has been well prepared, it produces very 
heavy crops. There are a number of varieties, 
both bronze and green, but the green is almost 
exclusively grown. There are hardy, or big- topped 
varieties, and small-topped kinds, which come to 



KOHLRABI FOB FEEDING 



309 



quick maturity, but are not able to withstand tlie 
severity of winter, and are, tlierefore, useful only 
for autumn food. Kohlrabi is particularly suited 
for filling in gaps between other forage crops. 

A recent Cornell publication (Bulletin No. 244) 
speaks as follows of kohlrabi as a forage crop : " It 




Fig. 59. White Vienna kohlrabi. It is a heavy yielder of both tubers 
and leaves. Background of six inch squares. (Cornell Station.) 



310 FOB AGE CROPS 

can be grown wherever rutabagas are grown, and 
will thrive if treated as described for the latter 
crop. In the middle West whei-e rutabagas have a 
tendency to run to necks and form little root, 
this crop is a very good substitute. So far as now 
known, in New York the yields of the two crops 
are about the same, but both yielded less than 
mangels on the experiment station grounds. In 
addition to being quite a free-growing crop, it has 
the following advantages over rutabagas: 

"1. It is not so subject to clubroot or finger- 
and-toe {PlasmodiopJiora hrassiccc) , and some other 
diseases. 

"2. It withstands drought better. 

"3. It can be grown on heavier soil, as clays, 
and does admirably on muck land. 

"4. It stands well out of the ground and can be 
readily pastured by sheep if desired. 

"5. It has not been known to cause taint of 
milk when fed to dairy cows. 

"6. It is rather better than the rutabaga in with- 
standing frost. 

"7. It may be grown where the climate is too 
warm for the best development of the rutabaga. 

"8. The leaves are as valuable as the stem. 

"Among well-known varieties are the White 
Vienna (Fig. 59) , Purple Vienna, Short-top White, 
Goliath, Carter Model." 



CHAPTER XVII 

PERMANENT MEADOWS AND PASTURES 

The raising of hay forms a very important part 
of the farming interests of the eastern and central 
western states. The aggregate area in hay is 
greater than in an}^ other crop. While in parts of 
the eastern states the hay crop is deemed worthy 
of the best attention of the farmer, this is the ex- 
ception rather than the rule; therefore, w^iile there 
may be profit from its growth, the yield and value 
are much less than should be secured were the 
crop given the same attention as the other crops 
in the rotation. In most instances, the hay is 
seeded rather as a catch- crop with wheat, rye or 
oats, and, while good catches are frequently se- 
cured, more often the stand is thin, thus reducing 
the yield, besides permitting the growth of natural 
grasses and weeds, and very materially reducing 
the quality of the product. Modern conditions 
would seem to warrant greater attention being 
given to this crop, and experiments show clearly 
that the hay crop will respond quite as profitably 
to good care, and the use of manures and fertili- 
zers, as any other field crop. 

(311) 



312 FORAGE CROPS 

MEADOWS 

The main market hay is timothy, and market 
quality is reduced in proportion to the quantity of 
other kinds of grass mixed with it. Other grasses 
are of value, however, and these will undoubtedly 
be a feature in the hay markets, and exercise an 
influence in grading for market, when their value 
is generally known. From the standpoint of the 
grower, it is desirable to have more than one 
variety of grass, as it permits of thicker seeding 
and larger yield, for, when conditions are unfavor- 
able for one grass, they may be favorable for 
another. Besides, the conditions that are unfavor- 
able for the permanency of one grass may be 
favorable for the permanency of another, thus 
lengthening the period during which meadows may 
be profitably mown. Therefore, mixtures con- 
taining timothy, blue -grass, red -top, and other 
grasses of known value, in addition to the ordi- 
nary mixture of timothy and clover, are to be 
recommended. It is desirable that the varieties of 
grasses used in a mixture should mature practi- 
cally at the same time; otherwise, the mixture 
would contain over-ripe and under-ripe grasses, 
which would unfavorably affect the quality of hay. 

To insure permanency of meadows, it is not good 
practice to pasture them, as the tramping of the 
animals, especially should the land be wet, will 



MEADOW LANDS 313 

destroy many plants, and the vacant places will be 
occupied by weeds. It is much better to utilize the 
second crop as hay or green forage. If pasturing 
is practiced, care must be exercised to see that it 
is not carried too far. 

Lands and their preparation 

Lands suitable for hay- growing range from 
sandy loams to heavy clays, although, on the 
lighter soils, more difficulty is experienced in get- 
ting a stand and in securing its permanence. On 
heavier lands, the grasses are more likely to 
secure their needed food, and to grow without 
deterioration for a longer period. 

The main point, particularly on the heavier 
lands, is to have the soil suitably prepared, if a 
good crop is to be guaranteed. The preparation 
usually given for the seeding of wheat or rye is 
generally very good for timothy and red- top, sown 
at the time of seeding the grain. As already 
pointed out, such seedings are not to be regarded 
as the best, as the purpose in the seeding is to 
secure the grain crop rather than the grass, and 
the grass crop is assured only when the conditions 
are all favorable for germination and subsequent 
growth. It has been demonstrated that, in order 
to secure the best results, the land intended for 
permanent meadows should be specially prepared, 



314 FOB AGE CROPS 

not only plowed deep, but frequently and thor- 
oughly cultivated, both to destroy weed seeds and 
to put the soil in an exceedingly fine tilth, which 
promotes the solubility of plant- food and permits 
the easy penetration of the roots of the young 
plants. It has been shown, also, that grass thus 
seeded does not usually require a nurse- crop, and 
that such seedings will give a larger yield of hay, 
the following season, than can be expected when 
seeded with grain in the customary way. 

Seed and seeding 

When seeded for permanent timothy meadow 
and for market, hay is the object sought; hence ^ 
if land is well prepared and clean, twenty to thirty 
pounds of seed should be used, although it follows 
that with this thick seeding abundance of avail- 
able food should be present. The common practice 
of mixing timothy and clover is a good one, as gen- 
erally a larger crop is obtained the first season — a 
sufficient increase to pay, although the selling price 
is lower for mixed hay. In this case, the follow- 
ing mixture of seed has been found to be good 
(using twenty to twenty- four pounds of seed per 
acre) : 

Timothy 12 pounds 

Red clover 4 pounds 

Alsike 2 pounds 



316 FORAGE CROPS 

This mixture makes an excellent hay for home 
feeding, especially for cattle. The following mix- 
ture of seed has been found to be most excellent 
for lands well adapted to grass, the finer grasses 
making a thick sward, and insuring a larger yield: 

Timothy 8 pounds 

Red clover 4 pounds 

Alsike 2 pounds 

Kentucky blue -grass 2 pounds 

Red-top 2 pounds 

On clay loam lands that are naturally moist, the 
red- top and blue -grass are likely to crowd out the 
timothy, leaving a practically pure seeding of 
the red -top and the blue -grass. These make hay 
that is not readily salable, although, if cut when in 
full head and before the seeds have ripened, it is 
readily eaten by cattle. If allowed to ripen, the 
quality is much reduced, as it is not only unpala- 
table but is less digestible. Timothy for market 
should be cut as soon as the blossoms have 
dropped and the seeds formed, but not hardened; 
the leaves are still bright, while the yield has 
practically reached its maximum. 

Whatever the mixture, the seeding may be made 
in the early fall, during a period ranging in 
southern sections from the latter part of August 
to early in October. The main point is to have 
the seeding made early enough to ensure a good 
growth before winter, and late enough to avoid 



FERTILIZING MEADOWS 317 

such summer weeds as crab -grass. Unless too 
large growth is made the first fall, it should not be 
removed nor pastured, but allowed to remain on 
the land. If heavy growth is made, it is better to 
mow, rather than to pasture it off before winter. 

Manures and fertilizers 

In seeding down meadows for permanent mow- 
ing, it is very important that the land, even 
though naturally fertile, be well supplied with 
available plant- food. This may be either barnyard 
manure or commercial fertilizer; in the absence 
of barnyard manure, commercial fertilizers can be 
depended on exclusively. In the use of barnyard 
manure, the quantity applied should range from 
six to eight tons per acre, preferably in fine 
condition, distributed evenly, and thoroughly 
cultivated into the surface soil. This should be 
supplemented at time of seeding by a fertilizer 
mixture made up largely of phosphates and potash 
salts, as the manure will supply an abundance of 
nitrogen to give the plant a start and insure its 
growth the first season. A good formula or 
mixture for application at time of seeding is the 
following: 

Nitrate of soda 50 pounds 

Ground tankage or bone 200 pounds 

Acid phosphate 600 pounds 

Muriate of potash 150 pounds 



318 FOB AGE CROPS 

This application, when used without manure, 
may be 300 to 600 pounds per acre; with manure, 
about 200 to 350 pounds per acre. This should be 
applied previous to seeding and well harrowed in. 

If the stand on young meadows is good, no top- 
dressing is needed the first year, on good lands. 
In spring, after the first year, the meadow should 
be top-dressed with a commercial fertilizer, or 
with finely divided manure early in the season, in 
order to supply the food needed for the rapid 
growth, as well as to encourage the deep rooting of 
the grasses, and a thickening of the sward. The 
mixtures for spring top-dressing should contain a 
large proportion of nitrate of soda, as this is the 
one form of nitrogen that is soluble and readily 
diffusible in the soil; this will penetrate deeply 
and encourage a deeper rooting of the plant. A 
formula made up as follows is one of the best: 

Nitrate of soda 500 pounds 

Ground bone 200 pounds 

Acid phosphate 200 pounds 

Muriate of potash 100 pounds 

The summer or fall applications may contain a 
larger proportion of the minerals, and a formula 
made up of 

Nitrate of soda 200 pounds 

Ground bone 200 pounds 

Acid phosphate 500 pounds 

Muriate of potash 100 pounds 



FERTILIZING MEADOWS 319 

may be used in order to encourage the growth of 
the second crop, or aftermath. For this purpose, 
an application of 150 to 300 pounds of the mixture 
per acre may be made. Experiments to determine 
the most useful quantity show that, for the spring 
top-dressing, as high as 450 pounds of a mixture 
rich in nitrate, as the one above, will pay better 
than smaller applications, although in many in- 
stances, where the areas are large, farmers are 
not prepared to provide so large an allowance. 
These top -dressings, as already pointed out, may 
be either manure or fertilizer, but they should be 
applied every year, if permanence and good crops 
are expected; and, while the proportions of the 
different grasses may change somewhat, experi- 
ence shows that the yields will be more profitable 
and will gradually increase, owing to the improved 
fertility of the land. 

Experiments at the West Virginia Experiment 
Station show that the use of manure alone, when 
applied to a soil not highly fertile, caused an 
increase in yield from less than two tons per 
acre in the first year to over five tons per acre 
in the sixth year, and with nitrate of soda alone 
to about four tons. The average for the six 
years was four tons and over, for the manure, 
and three tons and over for the nitrate. "The 
entire meadow produced hay during the six years 
of the test to the value of more than thirty- six 



320 FORAGE CROPS 

dollars per acre per year, in addition to paying 
for all the fertilizer applied, while the land at 
the close of the five years was more valuable 
than at the beginning of the test. This plan of 
growing hay would not only result in increasing 
the value per acre to the farmer, but largely 
improved his soil for other crops." 

Recent experiments at Cornell (Bulletins 232, 
241) did not give very encouraging results on tim- 
othy with fertilizers alone (muriate potash, acid 
phosphate, nitrate of soda, and combinations) as 
compared with good stable manure: "It is per- 
fectly obvious from these experiments that, on 
the Dunkirk clay loam on which this experiment 
was conducted and in this climate and under the 
conditions of this experiment, stable manure, 
at fifty cents a load,^ brought much better finan- 
cial results than any application of commercial 
fertilizer at current prices for the same. It also 
demonstrates that on this soil, which has been 
under cultivation for two or three generations, 
when stable manure is available, excellent crops 
of timothy hay may be produced. Where stable 
manure can be procured in sufficient quantity, 
the use of commercial fertilizers is not necessary. 

1 In making such comparisons as this, everything depends on the 
vahie placed on the manure. It is possible that fifty cents a load for 
manure is a comparable price on some farms, but farmers cannot buy 
manure and haul it at tliis figure. One dollar a load is probably a fairer 
price; and for city manures even this figure must be at least doubled. 



FERTILIZING TIMOTHY 321 

On the other hand, these experiments give rea- 
son to believe that, when stable manure is lack- 
ing or not sufficiently abundant, commercial 
fertilizers may be used, if used judiciously, with 
good results. 

"For the New York farmer, especially those 
who wish to raise the maximum amount of hay, 
a judicious blending of stable manure, legumi- 
nous crops and commercial fertilizers will prob- 
ably bring both the maximum yield and the 
most economic returns. For the farmer who 
wishes to raise a larger proportion of hay on 
Dunkirk clay loam, an eight -year rotation may 
be suggested: hay, five years; an mtertilled 
crop, such as corn, potatoes, beans, mangels, 
rutabagas or cabbages, one year; oats, one year; 
winter wheat or rye, one year. Timothy would 
be seeded in the fall with the wheat or rye and 
a mixture of red and alsike clover the following 
spring. In this rotation stable manure should 
be applied to the grass land before plowing for 
the cultivated crop. No fertilizer of any sort 
need be applied for oats. To the wheat apply 
commercial fertilizer relatively high in phosphoric 
acid and potash and low in nitrogen. Apply in 
the spring to each grass crop, just as soon as 
the grass starts, commercial fertilizers relatively 
high in nitrogen and low in phosphoric acid and 
potash. Mixed fertilizers usually coiit^in too 

u 



322 FOB AGE CROPS 

high a proportion of phosphoric acid and too 
low a proportion of nitrogen for the production 
of timothy hay upon the soil and in the climate 
under consideration. It would probably be best 
for the farmer to buy the separate ingredients 
and mix them himself. The following mixture 
or its equivalent is recommended, nitrate of 
soda, 200 pounds; 16 per cent acid phosphate, 
100 pounds, and muriate of potash, 80 per cent 
purity, 50 pounds. Whether this quantity should 
be applied per acre, or a greater or less quantity, 
can best be determined from the history of the 
land and the appearance of the meadow from 
year to year. In the experiments under consid- 
eration, only acid phosphate has been used as a 
source of phosphoric acid, although experiments 
at the Pennsylvania and Illinois Stations indi- 
cate that finely ground phosphate rock may, in 
the course of a rotation, be equally useful." 

PERMANENT PASTURES 

The treatment of permanent pastures follows 
the same general procedure as for permanent 
meadows. In many parts of the country, past- 
ures occupy the rougher areas of the farm. In 
some instances they are too wet, in others too 
rough, and in practically all cases no attention 
is given to their improvement, either in the way 



324 FOB AGE CROPS 

of added fertility, or of drainage, or in cleaning 
the land of foreign growths. Experience has 
shown that pastures may be very materially im- 
proved, and at slight expense, if careful plans 
are made and a definite system of treatment is 
laid out and practiced. In the preparation of the 
land, and seeding, the suggestions already made 
for meadows may follow, except that many 
grasses will serve as pasture that are not so well 
adapted for hay; besides, the objections made to 
mixtures for hay do not hold good for pastures, 
as the farmer uses them for his own stock rather 
than offers them for sale. 

Seed mixture 

The following mixture of grasses and clovers 
will probably answer quite as well as any other, 
in the seeding down of pastures, as the variety 
of grasses is such as to insure a thick sward, 
as well as to provide for both early and late 
grazing : 

Timothy 3 pounds 

Orchard grass 2 pounds 

Red-top 2 pounds 

Kentucky blue -grass 2 pounds 

Italian rye- grass 1 pound 

Meadow fescue 2 pounds 

Red clover 4 pounds 

White clover 2 pounds 



PERMANENT PASTURE 325 

Preparation of land and top-dressing 

In the preparation of the land and in seeding, 
great cave should be exercised to remove all 
weeds, by allowing the land to lie bare for a 
time previous to seeding, and frequently to cul- 
tivate it. Since the pasture is to remain for a 
long period, it is usually important that the land 
be well limed, using from forty to fifty bushels 
per acre, and thoroughly harrowing it into the soil 
in the summer before the seeding. This will not 
onlv sweeten the soil, but will encourage the 
growth of clovers and other valuable legumes, 
which are always desirable. 

Top -dressings should then be made at least 
once each year, preferably early in spring before 
the animals are turned on. The mixture may be 
similar to that recommended for meadows, applied 
at the rate of 200 to 300 pounds per acre. If ap- 
plied in the fall, after the pasturage has ceased for 
the season, one not containing nitrates is prefer- 
able. An equal mixture of kainit, ground bone and 
acid phosphate has been found to be very useful, 
at the rate of about three hundred pounds per 
acre. This top-dressing not only causes a thicker 
growth of the nutritious grasses, but encourages a 
tendency to deep rooting, and thus a greater 
resistance to drought, besides improving the soil 
from year to year and j)reventing running out of 



326 FOB AGE CHOPS 

the grasses, which is so common on neglected 
pasture. 

Weeds and brambles which are not consumed 
by stock should be removed each year, preferably 
in August, at which season the destruction of the 
plant is likely to result. Systematic management 
and treatment of pastures will result in many in- 
stances in increasing the yield more than two-fold ; 
this should be a part of the practice of every far- 
mer. On rough lands, where it is not possible to 
plow and prepare the soil and where grasses come 
in naturally, the permanenc}^ of the pastures may 
be increased, and the quality improved, simply by 
dressing with commercial fertilizers, using mainly 
ground bone, acid phosphate and muriate of pot- 
ash, and liming once in about four years. Many 
hill pastures, that furnish scanty herbage, may be 
very quickly improved by this method, and the 
yield of forage very largely increased. In these 
cases, the soil is frequently dry and poor, and it 
requires only that the minerals should be applied, 
in order that the plants may develop more rapidly, 
and continue for a longer time. 

Renewing old pastures 

Old pastures that have become sod-bound and 
mossy may be greatly improved by scarifying with 
any suitable tool ; a spike-tooth harrow will answer 



pi:bmanent past u be 327 

the purpose, as it will do greater service among 
stones and stumps than most others. Lime the 
land at the rate of twenty-five bushels per acre, 
and fertilize with the mixture of ground bone, acid 
phosphate and kainit at the rate of 200 to 500 
pounds per acre. The stirring of the soil will let in 
the air, the lime will sweeten it, and the fertilizer 
will provide additional food. Seed should then be 
sown and lightly covered. The expense is not 
great, while the value of the pasture is manifestly 
improved, and its greater permanence assured. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

BERMUDA- GEASS AND RUSSIAN BBOME GRASS 

Timothy, red- top and June-grass are the staple 
meadow and pasture grasses of the okler parts of 
the United States. The remarks in the preceding 
chapter apply specially to them and to combi- 
nations with clovers. There remain very many 
grasses of recent introduction, or which have 
lately come into notice, but a discussion of them 
is scarcely called for in a brief popular work of 
this kind. Two other grasses, however, need to 
be specially considered, and a discussion of them 
now follows. 

BERMUDA -GRASS 

Bermuda -grass is now regarded as one of the 
most valuable grasses for the southern states, par- 
ticularly for pasture. It is perennial, the creeping 
stems of which produce nodes at short intervals; 
each joint is capable of producing a new plant, 
even though it is cut off and completely separated 
from the main stem. It is because of this charac- 
teristic, although valuable from the standpoint of 
securing a thick stand, that many farmers olg'ect 
to its introduction, as, after it is once seeded, the 

(328) 



BEEMUDA-OEASS 329 

cleaning of the land is very difficult. Many growers 
now think that, when rotations are desired, it is 
not necessary completely to clean the land of 
Bermuda -grass, since, if a few joints are left, 
these serve to bind the land and to hold moisture ; 
then, when the grass crop is wanted again, enough 
joints remain alive quickly to form a complete 
cover. The plant makes a thick, leafy growth 
with branches of five to ten inches in height. It is 
the common lawn grass of the South. 

Bermuda -grass is a hot -weather plant, and 
thrives only in those regions in which the winters 
are short, and the frost does not penetrate deep or 
persist for a long time. It grows through the 
entire summer. While it will make a much better 
yield on good lands, it is also well adapted for 
pasture on poor lands, and on those liable to wash 
and gulley; and its power of withstanding heat 
and drought, and to revive quickly when moisture 
comes, are among its valuable characteristics. It 
grows best on light soils, river- bottoms and at the 
foot of hills, where the soil has been washed from 
the higher levels. Its habit of throwing out under- 
ground stems, makes it better adapted to sandy 
lands than to stiff heavy clays; nevertheless, when 
once well established on the heavier soils, it is 
serviceable. It has rendered great service in the 
South in preventing the washing of lands, a 
danger that is common in the southern states. 



330 FOB AGE CROPS 

Preparation of the land 

As with other grass plants, the better the prep- 
aration of land, and the cleaner, the quicker will 
the stand of grass be secured. The conditions 
which result from the planting and care of corn, 
cotton and tobacco, provide a suitable preparation 
for Bermuda- grass. Owing to the high price of 
seed and its low vitality, the method now generally 
used to secure a stand, is to plant pieces of root- 
stocks rather than to seed in the ordinary way, 
although it is necessary to have a small area 
seeded to use as a cutting nursery for enlarging 
the area. For this purpose, the seed should be 
sown broadcast, on clean, moist land, and covered 
with a rake or light harrow. Five pounds of seed 
is sufficient for an acre. 

This plant responds well to fertilizers, and top- 
dressings with nitrate of soda, where the soils 
have been suitably fertilized with minerals at time 
of seeding, are very profitable. 

Bermuda- grass for pasture or meadow 

The following methods of securing a pasture 
or meadow of Bermuda -grass are described by 
Prof. F. Lamson-Scribner^: — 

"On account of the high price of seed, and the 

'Circular 31, Div. of Agrostology, Dept. of Agr., Washington, D. C. 



BEBMUDA-GBASS 331 

necessity of a thorough preparation of the soil, 
pastures and meadows are more often started 
from cuttings. To prepare cuttings, the sod is 
gathered and cut into small pieces with a feed 
cutter or other similar machine, or a wooden 
block and hatchet can be used if only a small 
quantity is needed. Since most of the propa- 
gating stems are near the surface, it is necessary 
to shave off a layer of sod only an inch or two 
thick. If cuttings are wanted in large quantities, 
the sod can be plowed and the roots harrowed 
into windrows or piles. In all cases care should 
be taken not to allow the roots to get dry. The 
cuttings may be planted at any time of the year 
in the South, excejDt the coldest winter months, 
but the work is usually done in March. If a 
meadow is desired, more care should be taken 
in the planting of the cuttings to insure a level 
surface for the mowing machine. The cuttings 
are planted by dropping them at intervals of a 
foot or two in shallow furrows, and covering with 
the next round of the plow. This can be done 
when the field is plowed, the cuttings being 
dropped every other round or every third round. 
Or the field can be prepared first and the cut- 
tings dropped upon the surface and pressed in 
with the foot as they are planted. For meadows 
it is best to go over the land with a roller after 
planting. For pastures, when a smooth surface 



332 FORAGE CROPS 

is not necessary, it is sufficient to plow shallow 
furrows every two to four feet and drop the cut- 
tings therein, covering them with the foot or by 
turning the soil back over them with the plow. 
"Professor Tracy remarks: — 'So easily may 
Bermuda- grass be propagated that good stands 
can be secured by scattering a dozen or more 
sods to the acre and cultivating the land in corn 
or cotton two or three years, when the grass 
becomes distributed in the field.' " 

Yield and value of crop 

Bermuda -grass is relished by all kinds of live- 
stock, and in all stages of growth, making a 
palatable and nutritious pasture and hay. Owing 
to its drought - resisting qualities, it provides 
pasture throughout the entire summer season, 
which ranges froin seven months, in North Caro- 
lina, to nearly the entire year in the far South. 
It is not desirable, however, to graze throughout 
the entire year, as grazing naturally reduces the 
vitality of the plant. Neither should it be grazed 
too closely soon after planting, as this has a 
tendency to destroy the runners, thus prevent- 
ing the formation of new plants. On estal)lished 
pastures, however, close grazing is desirable, 
V)ecause the pasture is more palatable, — the stems 
not becoming hard and wiry and less digestible. 



BEBMUDA-GBASS 333 

For use as bay, the crop should be harvested 
when a large proportion of the stems are in 
bloom. The number of cuttings in a season must 
depend on soil and season, ranging from one to 
four per year, with a total yield of one to three 
tons per acre. 

The following reports^ from the states indicated 
show that Bermuda-grass is highly regarded and 
likely to prove one of the most valuable forage 
crops : 

^^ Alabama. — This grass will grow under the 
most flagrant neglect; wdiile care and cultivation 
will bring out its characteristics to a marked de- 
gree, and will repay the cultivator for all his ex- 
pense and trouble. It is an excellent grass to 
prevent the washing of the land, for filliug up 
gullies and preserving terraces. It makes one of 
the best lawns on account of its smooth and regu- 
lar growth, and its power to withstand the heat of 
the sun. The Bermuda-grass is not so diflicult to 
eradicate from the field as most farmers seem to 
think. Close cultivation in cotton for two or three 
years, and thorough pulverization of the soil will 
destroy this plant. 

^^ Arkansas. — Bermuda-grass is the best summer 
pasture grass we have for the sandy soils of south 
Arkansas, and is one of the best hay grasses for 
all parts of the state, except the northwestern 

i Bulletin No. 55, Oklaho]iia Experiment Station, 



334 FOB AGE CBOPS 

part. It is not generally regarded with much 
favor, but, where it has established itself and is 
being utilized, it is regarded with great favor. On 
the barren soils it does not succeed, but it suc- 
ceeds on all other soils whether wet or dry. It 
makes hay of superior quality that is highly rel- 
ished by live-stock. When the value of Bermuda- 
grass for hay, pasture and a soil-renovator is 
appreciated, and the proper methods for cultivat- 
ing and controlling it are understood, it will be a 
highly appreciated grass. Shade is fatal to the 
grass, and by using the harrow, then oats, then 
cowpeas and cotton, the grass can be subdued and 
eradicated. To start the grass by seed is uncer- 
tain. The cheapest and best way is to start to 
turn up a Bermuda sod and harrow the roots into 
piles, then chop them into short pieces with a 
hatchet and sow them on freshly broken soil and 
plow them in. The roots must not get dry while 
out of the ground. 

^^ California. — This grass has introduced itself 
in a bold and uninvited manner. Its perfect adap- 
tability to the conditions is evidenced by the thrifty 
growth on all kinds of soil, including strong alkali, 
very dry and very wet, producing more than any 
other grass (without care or planting), abundant 
feed during nine months of the year. The objec- 
tions to this useful grass are mostly founded on 
the prejudice of the people, which renders theni 



BEBMUDA-GBASS 335 

blind to their own interests. Many men are wear- 
ing ont their lives in poverty, trying to grow frnit 
on land poorly adapted to fruit-growing, but emi- 
nently adapted to Bermuda- grass. 

^^ Louisiana. — For winter and early spring, Texas 
blue -grass and the clovers seem to fulfil all the 
requirements, followed in summer by Bermuda- 
and crab -grass, the two best grasses we have. It 
was impossible during the wet summer to restrict 
the last two to the plots allotted to them, but to- 
gether, they covered the whole area of the (grass) 
garden, yielding several cuttings of hay for our 
work animals. 

'^Mississippi. — This grass is the most valuable 
species we have in the South, and is too well 
known to need any description. It succeeds best 
on rich bottom lands and on the black prairie soil, 
where it will yield two cuttings in a season, mak- 
ing two to four tons of hay per acre. This hay is 
of the very best quality, being especially valuable 
for horses and mules." 

J. S. Newman, in Bulletin No. 76, of the South 
Carolina Station, says of the plant: "This most 
valuable acquisition to our list of pasture grasses 
seems to have come from India, where it is called 
^Dhab.' 

"Until its great value as a pasture grass and, 
on moist, fertile soils, as a hay producer, became 
known, it was regarded as a pest by the cotton 



336 FORAGE CHOPS 

planters all over the southern United States. 
Many plantations, in the south Atlantic states, 
were abandoned on account of its prevalence upon 
them, which are now yielding more profitable 
returns from Bermuda pastures and Bermuda hay 
than were ever realized from the same fields while 
cultivated in cotton. There is a well authenticated 
record of 13,000 pounds of Bermuda hay, per acre, 
from three mowings during one season, on the 
Oconee river-bottoms in Georgia. 

"Farmers who, a few years since, dreaded its 
appearance upon their farms as they did Canada 
thistle or the famous coco or nut grass, are 
now industriously planting Bermuda pastures and 
meadows." 

Meadows of Bermuda -grass should be renewed 
once in three or four years, as the tendency is to 
become sod -bound. The meadows may be re- 
newed by deep plowing, and seeding in the late 
fall with any of the crops usually grown for spring 
pasture or soiling; vetch and winter oats have 
been used for this j)^^i'P<^s^ ^i^^i great success. 
An abundance of seed should be used and the 
land well fertilized in order to insure a vigorous 
growth that will help to choke the grass. The 
sods and roots left will spread rajndly after the 
forage crops have been grazed or cut, provided 
the land is naturally fertile, or has been even 
manured or fertilized, 



BERMUDA'GBASS 337 

Methods of eradication 

^'The very qualities which render Bermuda so 
vakiable as a pasture grass serve to make it an 
aggressive and pestiferous weed. On account of 
its tendency to spread and insinuate itself into 
land where it is not wanted, and to persist in 
fields which are to be used for other purposes, 
it has, in many cases, not been utilized to the 
extent that its good qualities would indicate. 
However, it can be eradicated from a field with 
comparative ease by proper cultivation. Since it 
will not thrive in the shade, it is only necessary 
to smother it out by some quick -growing crop. 
A method recommended by southern agricul- 
turists, and which may be modified to suit con- 
ditions, is to plow the land after the last crop 
of hay is cut, if the field is a meadow, or about 
this season if it is a pasture. Sow the field to 
oats, wheat or other thick -growing crops. When 
this crop is harvested, plow the laud immediately 
and plant to cowpeas. It is probably best to 
plant these in drills and cultivate them until the 
vines meet, after which they will shade the ground 
and prevent the growth of Bermuda. Usually 
this treatment is sufficient to completely destroy 
the Bermuda; but if not, the process can be 
repeated." (Circular No. 31, Division of Agros- 
tology, Department of Agriculture.) 



338 FOBAGJS CHOPS 

RUSSIAN BROME GRASS {Bromus inermis) (Figs. 62, 63) 

This perennial grass was introduced into the 
United States in 1882, and is now widely grown 
in Canada and in North and South Dakota, and in 
the western parts of Minnesota, also in Kansas 
and Nebraska, and in parts of many other of the 
western states, both because it is itself a good 
grass crop and because it resists cold and drought. 

The habits of growth of this plant are similar 
to those of quack-grass; it has creeping root- 
stocks, branching out in every direction, and these 
produce at each joint a bud, which is capable 
of producing another plant. It grows to an average 
height of about two feet, although under good con- 
ditions it will reach a much greater height. The 
leaves are broad, thick and abundant, when the 
soil is good. This grass makes a large yield, 
because of the thickness, even though the height 
is somewhat reduced. It is well adapted to light, 
dry soils. It starts in spring earlier than any of 
the other valuable grasses. It matures usually in 
the month of June. It is a very palatable grass, 
all animals being fond of it. Because of its habit 
of growth, it makes a valuable pasture throughout 
the entire season, and is also useful as hay. The 
yields from an average crop are one and one -half 
to three tons per acre. 

Bromus inermis is adapted to a wide variety 



'V 



■'. < V 



\-y xv..\. 



■r- ^, 








^op^ 



Fig. 62 Bromus inermis. 
Photographed by H, L. BoUey, North Dakota. 



340 FORAGE CROPS 

of lands, although it seems to do very much better 
on light sandy soils, deficient in moisture. This 
makes it a useful plant where others would not 
grow well; but it does not follow that it will not 
grow much better on soils of higher fertility. This 
bronie grass is not well adapted to a rotation of 
crops, because of the difficulty of cleaning the land, 
although this is less difficult than in the case of 
Bermuda- grass. It should not be allowed to grow 
for a long period without breaking up, if used in 
rotations. 

Fertilizing Bromus inermis 

In renewing either pastures or meadows of 
Bromus inermis that are too thin, seed may be 
added in the fall and lightly covered with a har- 
row, although a thin stand will ordinarily thicken 
up sufficiently, if the plant -food is ample. As 
with other grasses, fertilizers or manures are 
beneficial, and top -dressings of manure, either 
in the late winter or early spring (four to six 
loads per acre), or top-dressings of nitrate of 
soda when the plants are well started, will usu- 
ally pay well. When lands are rich and moist, 
there is sometimes difficulty in destroying the 
grass, when land is broken for other crops; but 
if plowed deep and followed by one or more 
cultivated crops, there need be little anxiety on 
this score. 



342 FORAGE CHOPS 

The preparation of land, and seeding 

Russian brome grass does not grow rapidly 
the first season. Therefore the land should be 
well prepared and free from weed seeds before 
planting. It is more desirable to sow after a 
cultivated crop, or on land that has been sum- 
mer - fallowed part of the season. The good 
preparation necessary for the seeding of any 
grass will answer. It may be sown in fall or 
spring, although, under average conditions, the 
most favorable time is the early spring, especially 
if sown with a nurse crop. If seeded in August 
or September, on land that has been well pre- 
pared, it should make a good crop the following 
season. In the South, it is preferable to sow in 
the fall, owing to the fear of destruction by the 
hot, dry weather of the following summer. 

When seeded without other grasses, twelve to 
fifteen pounds per acre is sufficient, when in- 
tended for hay; sixteen to twenty pounds should 
be used when intended for pasture. When it is 
a part of a combination of other grasses, the 
proportions may be two to five pounds, according 
to the object of the seeding, although little expe- 
rience has accumulated in this country as to its 
permanent character in pasture and meadows. 
Its natural tendency is to crowd out other less 
vigorous grasses 



BBOME GRASS 343 

Pasturing and harvesting 

For pasture, the brome grass will stand close 
grazing, particularly on good lands, but if pastured 
very late and close in the fall, the yield of the 
next season's croj^ is likely to be reduced. 

In cutting for hay, it should be harvested when 
fully in head, although for horses it may be cut 
when the blooms have disappeared. Probably 
the best time for cutting, as for other grasses, 
is when the plants are in full bloom. The cut- 
ting and curing does not differ from the methods 
recommended for timothy, or the other better 
known grasses. 



CHAPTER XIX 

COMPOSITION, FERTILIZER AND COEFFICIENT 

TABLES 

This chapter contains tables showing the aver- 
age composition of American forage crops and 
feed stuffs, together with the fertiUzer constitu- 
ents contained in them, and the average coeffi- 
cients of digestibility. 

The analyses represent the average as near as 
may be, although it should be understood that 
average compositions of products of varying qual- 
ity are a guide only when accompanied with 
knowledge of the possible variations that may 
occur; they are chiefly useful in showing differ- 
ences in the composition of groups, rather than 
giving exact information as to what may be ex- 
pected under different conditions. This is particu- 
larly true in the case of crops used for green 
forage, as the range in content of dry matter is 
very wide, owing to the necessity of beginning to 
harvest when the plants are inmiature and con- 
tinuing it so long as they remain palatable. The 
composition of fine feeds also varies widely, 
although it is possible now to so classify as to 
eliminate the variations that formerly existed. 

(344) 



COMPOSITION TABLES 345 

The tables showing the average fertilizer ingre- 
dients of fodders and feeds are also subject to the 
same criticism, although not to the same degree. 

These data are of special service, in the case 
of farm crops, in showing the relations between 
the different classes, and, in the case of fine feeds 
(which are not forage-crop products), in indicat- 
ing the gains or losses that may be incurred in 
the exchange of home-grown herbage feeds for 
the more concentrated refuse or by-products. 

The average coefficients of digestibility are also 
subject to variations, as must be apparent to 
those who give the matter consideration. They 
are to be used as guides only, and not as absolute 
facts. 

The data contained in these various tables 
have been derived from a number of sources, but 
mainly from tabulations of analyses made by the 
various experiment stations of this country. The 
coefficients of digestibility are the averages of 
American digestion experiments contained in the 
report of the Hatch Experiment Station of Massa- 
chusetts, for 1906. 

PLAN OF TABLES I AND II 

1. Green fodder, pp. 347, 358. 

A. Cereals and grasses. 

B. Legumes. 

C. Combination crops. 

D. Miscellaneous. 



346 FORAGE CROPS 

2. Silage, pp. 349, 359. 

3. Ray and dried coarse fodder, pp. 349, 359. 

A. Cereals. 

B. Grasses — hay. 

C. Legumes — hay. 

D. Miscellaneous. 

E. Straw. 

4. Boots, pp. 351, 361. 

5. Grains and other seeds, pp. 351, 361. 

6. Oil cake meals, pp. 352, 362. 

7. Corn products, pp. 352, 362. 

8. Oat products, pp. 353, 363. 

9. Wheat products, pp. 354, 363. 

10. Bye, hucTcwheat, rice, etc., pp. 354, 363. 

11. Breivery and distillery products, pp. 355, 364. 

12. Feed mixtures, pp. 355, 364. 

13. Stock, calf and poultry mixtures, pp. 356, 365. 

PLAN OF TABLE III 

I. Experiments with Ruminants 

1. Green fodders, p. 366. 

A. Cereals and grasses. 

B. Legumes. 

2. Silage, p. 367. 

3. Hay and dried coarse fodders, p. 368. 

A. Cereal fodders. 

B. Grasses and millets. 

C. Legumes. 

D. Miscellaneous. 

4. Boots and tubers, p. 370. 

5. Concentrated feed stuffs, p. 370. 

A. Protein. 

B, Starchy materials. 
II. Experiments with Swine. 

III. Experiments with Horses. 

IV. Experiments with Poultry. 



COMPOSITION TABLES 



347 



TABLE I 

Average Composition of Fodders and Feeds 



Pounds per hundred 



u 




5.2 


14.0 


3.8 


12.7 


5.3 


17.7 


4.4 


12.8 


4.5 


14.0 


2.7 


4.1 


4.7 


0.0 


5.5 


7.5 


5.8 


15.2 


4.0 


7.7 


5.5 


7.5 


4.0 


9.0 


5 9 


10.4 


0.2 


10.3 


4.5 


7.1 


0.2 


9.3 


0.5 


10.5 


7.1 


10.0 


7.4 


9.7 


7.0 


10.7 


9.2 


14.2 


5.3 


11.7 


0.5 


10.2 


7.5 


10.4 


4.8 


9.9 


4.0 


8.0 


4.3 


9.0 


7.0 


11.4 


5.9 


11.9 



pq 



Green Foddek. 
a. Cereals and Grasses. 

Corn (Maize) 

White Tiioroughbred 

Flint corn 

Southern White corn 

Sweet corn 

Sweet corn, Stowell's 

Evergreen 

Teosinte 

Rural Branching 

(loura , 

Yellow milo maize ... 

Sorghum , 

Sorghum, Early Am- 
ber , 

S o r ghu m, Early 

Orange 

Sugar-cane 

Japan millet 

Japan b r o o m - c o r n 

millet 

Barnyard millet , 

Pearl millet 

Common millet 

CanaryBird Seed 

millet 

Early Harvest millet, 

Golden millet 

Hungarian grass , 

Millet , 

Hog millet 

Broom-corn millet ... 

Red kaflr corn , 

White kafir corn 

Rye 

Barley 

Wheat 



71 



10 



2 

2 

14 

3 
13 

2 
10 



12 



77.4 

80.3 
73.5 
79.1 

77.9 
90.1 

85.9 
83.2 
70.3 

85.2 

83.2 
84.2 
79.9 

78.7 
84.8 
81.5 
80.0 

80.0 
80.0 
80.0 
71.1 
80.0 
80.0 
78.0 
81.0 
83.4 
81.9 
70.0 
77.3 



1.3 

0.9 
1.0 
1.3 

1.2 
1.4 

1.3 
1.5 
1.1 

1.2 

1.5 
l.I 
1.5 

1.8 
1.0 
1.5 
1.0 

1.0 
1.4 
1.2 
1.7 
1.1 
1.4 
1.4 
1.3 
1.4 
1.4 
1.5 
1.8 



1.0 

1.7 
1.5 
1.9 

1.8 
1.4 

1.7 

1.7 
1.2 

1.4 

1.7 
1.2 
1.8 

2.4 
1.5 
1.2 
1.5 

1.0 
1.1 
0.8 
3.1 
1.1 
1.5 
1.0 
1.8 
1.9 
2.1 
2.8 
2.4 



0.5 

0.0 
1.0 
0.5 

0.0 
0.3 

0.4 
0.0 
0.4 

0.5 

0.0 
0.5 
0.5 

0.0 
0.5 
0.3 

0.3 

0.3 
0.4 
0.3 

0.7 
0.8 
0.4 
0.5 
0.0 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 



348 FOB AGE CBOPS 

Table I. Average Composition of Fodders and Feeds— Continued 



Green Fodders — Cereals 
and Grasses, continued. 

Oats 

Pasture grass 

Mixed grasses and 

clover 

Johnson grass 

Orchard-grass 

Tall oat-grass 

Italian rye-grass 

6. Legumes. 

Red clover 

Crimson clover 

Mammoth Ked clover. 

Alsike clover 

Sweet clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Canada field pea 

Soybean 

Velvet bean 

Sand vetch 

Spring vetch 

Kidney vetch 

Rape 

Horse bean 

Flat pea 

Sainfoin 

Serradella 

Sulla 

c. Comhinntion Crops. 

Oats and peas 

Barley and peas 

Coi'n and peas 

Sweet corn and peas.. 

Millet and peas 

Sorghum and peas . . . 

Corn and soyl)ean . . . . 

Barley and vetch 

Oars and vetch (1-1 ).. 



S 1=1 



7 
7 

2 
1 

8 

4 

24 

4 
4 
4 
4 

:v2 

2C. 
20 

1 

14 
4 
1 
5 
1 
2 

1 

:^ 



Pounds per hundred 



7o.O 
63.1 

75.0 
75.0 
7:5.0 
70.0 
73.2 

70.8 
84.0 
80.0 
74.8 
80.0 
77. 5 
84.4 
84.7 
75.1 
82.2 
85.3 
85.0 
85 
85.7 
85.0 
85.0 
75 
85.0 
75.0 

79 7 
80.0 
80.0 
80.0 
80.0 
80.0 
80.0 
80.0 
80.0 



< 



1.7 
3.2 

1.6 
1.4 
2.0 
1.6 
2.5 

2.1 
1.4 
1.9 
2.0 
1.9 
1.9 
1 9 
1.3 
2.6 
1.9 
2.1 
1.4 
2.0 
2.5 
0.9 
1.3 
2.1 
1.6 
2.3 

1.6 
1.6 
1.8 
15 

1.8 
1 6 
1.5 
1.2 
1.8 



Oh 



3.1 
5.6 

2.9 
1.2 
2.6 
2.3 
3.1 

4.4 
3.0 
3.0 
3.9 
3.8 
3.6 
3.9 
2.8 
4.0 
3.5 
3.6 
2.7 
2.8 
2.2 
2.5 
4.4 
4.4 
2.2 
4.3 



2.1 

1.8 
2.4 
1.6 
2.6 
2 8 
3.0 



8.0 
7.4 

8.0 
8.9 
8.2 
10.8 
6.8 

8.1 
4.1 
5.8 
7.4 
6.3 
6.3 
3.6 
4.4 
6.7 
5.1 
4.0 
4.5 
2.3 
2.1 
4.3 
3.7 
6.0 
4.4 



6.1 
6.8 
5.3 
4.8 
7.5 
6.5 
5.0 
6.5 
6.3 



115 
19.2 

11.7 
13.2 
13.3 
14.7 
13.3 

13.5 
7.0 
8.9 

11.0 
7.4 

10.1 
0.8 
6.3 

10.6 
6.6 
4.6 
6.1 
7.4 
7.0 
6.9 
5.0 

11.6 
6.5 

12.5 

9.6 

8 2 

10.4 

11.4 

8.0 

9.9 

10.4 

9.0 

8.4 



349 



COMPOSITION TABLES 
Table I. Average Composiiion of Fodders and Feeds— Continued 



Gkeen Foddkrs — Coml»ina- 
tion Crops, continued. 

Oats and vetch (4-1).. 

Wheat and vetch 

Tall oat-^rass and 

alsike 

Orchard-grass and 

alsike 

d. Miscellaneous. 

Apple pomace 

Sugar-beet pulp 

Cabbage waste 

Carrot tops 

Prickly comfrey 

Purslane 

Spurry 

2. Silage. 

Corn 

Sorghum 

Red clover 

Brewers' grains 

Rye 

Cowpea 

Soybean 

Soybean and corn 

Soybean and millet... 

Millet 

Apple pomace 

3. Hay and Dried Coarse 

Fodder. 

a. Cereals. 

Corn fodder 

Corn stover .'.... 

Oat fodder 

b. Grasses. Hay. 

Mixed grasses and 

clover 

Orchard-grass 






70 
G 
1 
4 
1 
1 
1 

9 
3 
1 



118 

60 

6 



12 
10 



Pounds per hundred 



^ 



80.0 
80.0 

80.0 

80.0 

83.0 
90.0 
82.0 
80.0 
87.0 
91.0 
72.0 



79.8 
75.8 
72.fi 
70.3 
80.8 
83.3 
74.9 
7fi.O 
79.0 
74.0 
85.0 



27.5 
40.5 
15.0 



15.0 
10.4 



1.8 
1.6 

1.5 

1.5 

0.6 
0.1 
4.9 

2.8 
2.8 
1 5 
2.6 



1.2 
1.0 
2.7 
1.2 
1.6 
2.0 
4.1 
2.3 
2.8 
2.4 
0.6 



4.6 
3.4 
6.9 



5.4 
5.5 



3.4 



2.4 

1.0 
1.4 
3.6 
4.2 
2.3 
2.3 
2.9 



1.6 
0.8 
3 8 
6.3 
2.4 
2.8 
4.5 
2.7 
2.8 
1.7 
1.2 



5.0 

3.8 

11.7 



7.5 
7.0 





C ci 
o ^ 


6.0 


8.8 


6.4 


8.1 


5.8 


9.5 


6.5 


9.0 


2.9 


11.6 


2.5 


5.9 


2 6 


6.6 


2.7 


9.9 


1.5 


6.1 


1.6 


3.4 


7.0 


15.4 


5.6 


11.1 


6.3 


15.8 


8.6 


11.4 


4 5 


15 6 


5.8 


9.1 


3.9 


6.7 


6.1 


89 


7.3 


10.9 


7.2 


7.2 


7.5 


13.6 


3.3 


8.8 


22.9 


38.8 


19.7 


31.5 


25.5 


38.3 


28.0 


41.6 


31.1 


43.8 



P^ 



0.7 
0.5 

0.5 

0.7 

0.9 
0.1 
0.3 
0.4 
0.3 
0.2 
0.1 



0.7 
0.3 
0.9 
2.1 
0.3 
1.3 
1.5 
0.8 
1.0 
0.8 
1.1 



1 2 
1.1 
2.6 



2.5 
2.2 



350 FORAGE CROPS 

Table I. Average Composition of Fodders and Feeds— Continued 



Hay and Dried Coarse 
Fodder — Grasses, H;iy, con. 

Timothy 

Roweii 

Hungarian grass 

Short sedge 

Creek sedge 

Herd-grass 

Salt marsh hay 

Bhxck grass 

Marsh rosemary 

Bog hay 

Canada blue-grass 

Kentucky blue-grass.. 

English hay 

Meadow fescue 

Barnyard millet 

Tall oat-grass 

Italian rye -grass 

Perennial rye-grass . . 

Red-top 

White-top 

c. Legumes. Hay. 

Red clover 

Mammoth red clover.. 

Alsike 

White clover 

Crimson clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Oats and peas 

Oat-grass and alsike.. 
Orchard-grass and 

alsike 

Oats and vetch (1-1).. 
Wheat and vetch 

(I. Miscellaneous. Hay. 

Hairy lotus 

White daisy 






25 

29 

11 

1 

2 

1 

13 

7 

1 

4 

1 

3 

102 

7 

9 

4 

4 

4 

8 

1 



25 
4 
9 
1 

3 

7 
4 
G 

9 



Pounds per hundred 



13.3 
14.0 
10.7 

8.5 
41.8 

7 5 
15. U 
12. () 

7.8 
11.0 
14.0 
14.0 
14.0 
14.0 
14.0 
14.0 
14.0 
14.0 
14.0 
14.0 



11.6 

15.0 

11.2 

7.1 

9.0 

8.7 

11.2 

10.5 

15.0 

15.0 
15.0 
15.0 



15.0 
15.0 



4.1 

0.4 
0.2 
lO.G 
0.0 
4.8 
O.G 
7.1 
5.8 
7.0 
4.8 
G.4 
5.3 
7.1 
7.9 
4.6 
6.4 
7.9 
4.3 
6.0 



7.1 
8.2 

8.0 
9.0 
8.1 
7.8 
9.1 
7.1 
6.5 

6.6 
7.4 
6.8 



7.0 
6.0 



CL( 



6.3 
11.4 

7.8 
7.3 
2.0 
6.3 
6 1 
6.8 
5.3 
7.4 
5.9 
7.7 
7.9 
5.8 

10.6 
6.4 
7.1 

10.1 
6.1 

11.2 



12.7 
13.1 
12.7 
14.1 
15.5 
16.5 
15.5 
10.3 
11.6 

10.1 
12.8 
14.5 



12.6 
6.6 



29.3 
23.9 
26.3 
21.3 
16.2 
26.6 
23 4 
25.0 
25.1 
25.9 
31.3 
.30.5 
27.7 
32.2 
28.7 
.30.9 
28.6 
25.4 
30.1 
24,4 



26.2 
24.4 
26.3 
27.3 
29.8 
27.1 
22.0 
28.3 
24.5 

27.6 
26.7 
27.2 



]6.8 
30.7 






45.1 
41.3 
47.3 
49.9 
32. 3 
53.3 
46.8 
46.2 
54.0 
46.7 
42.1 
39.7 
42.8 
39.3 
37.1 
42.1 
42.2 
40.5 
43.9 
41.5 



40.0 
37.6 
40.0 
40.4 
35.7 
37.2 
40 
41.2 
40.1 

.38.3 
35.8 
34.4 



46.1 
39.7 



COMPOSITION TABLES 351 

Table I. Average Composition of Fodders and Feeds— Continued 



Hay ani> Dried Coarsk 
Fodders, continued 

e. Straiv. 

Wheat 

Rye 

Oat 

Oats and peas 

Buckwheat 

Barley 

Horse bean „„., 

Soybean 

Millet 

4. Roots. 

Sugar-beets 

Mangel-wurzel 

Artichokes 

Beets, red 

Yellow fodder beets . . 

Cabbages 

Carrots 

Mangolds 

Parsnips 

Potatoes 

Sweet potatoes 

Rutabagas 

Japanese radish 

Turnips 

5. Grain and Other 

Seeds. 

Corn 

Sweet corn 

Sorghum seed ........ 

Millet , 

Oats 

Rye 

Wheat , 

Buckwheat 

Soybean 

Cowpea 



16 
G 



4 
2 
1 
7 
4 
2 
5 
5 
1 
22 

"g 

3 
1 
6 



15 
3 
6 
5 

20 
6 

21 
1 
1 



Pounds per hundred 



11.2 

6.6 

8.1 

7.4 

9.0 

15.0 

15.0 

15.0 

15.0 



82.0 

90.9 
78.0 
88.0 
89.0 
90.5 
89.0 
88.0 
80.0 
80.0 
71.1 
89.0 
93.0 
90.5 



15.4 
11.0 
12.3 
11.5 
11.4 
12.0 
12.7 
10.8 
9.6 
10.9 



3.9 
3.3 
4.8 
7.2 
G.5 
4.8 
8.1 
6.1 
5.2 



1.2 
1.1 
1.1 
1.1 
1.0 
1.4 
0.9 
1.2 
1.5 
0.9 
1.0 
1.1 
0.7 
0.8 



1.3 
1.9 

1.8 
2.9 
3.1 
1.8 
1.9 
2.3 
4.8 
3.3 



4.4 
3.1 
4.0 
4.6 
7.8 
6.5 
8.3 
4.7 
4.1 



1.6 
1.4 
2 9 
1.5 
1.3 
2.4 
1.0 
1.4 
1.3 
2.1 
1.5 
1.2 
0.5 
1.1 



9.1 
12.5 

8.G 
11. G 
11.3 
10.2 
10.8 
10.1 
35.4 
19.5 





4.^ 

II 

O K 

CM 


34.2 


44.8 


38.2 


47.5 


36.3 


44.7 


35.2 


43.4 


37.2 


38.8 


,32.2 


39.0 


35.2 


.32.1 


36.1 


36.3 


34.2 


39.7 


1.1 


14.0 


0.9 


5.5 


0.9 


16.9 


0.7 


8.6 


1.0 


7.5 


1.5 


3.8 


1.1 


7.8 


0.8 


8.5 


1.5 


15.0 


0.5 


16.4 


1.3 


24.7 


1.3 


7.2 


0.7 


5.0 


1.2 


6.2 


1.5 


68.6 


2.4 


64.9 


1.8 


71.9 


7.6 


61.8 


9.9 


59.5 


1.7 


72.6 


1.9 


71.0 


8.7 


65.6 


5.0 


26.2 


3.4 


61.4 



1.5 
1.3 
2.1 
9 9 



0.1 
0.2 
0.2 
0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.2 
0.1 
0.7 
0.1 
0.4 
0.2 
0.1 
0.2 



4.1 
7.3 

3.6 
4.6 
4.8 
1.7 
1.7 
2.5 
19.0 



352 FOB AGE CHOPS 

Table I. Average Composition of Fodders and Feeds— Continued 



Grain and Other Seeds, 
continued 

Blacli-eyed pea 

Hungarian grass seed 

Broom-corn seed 

Rice 

Oats and peas 

Horse beans 

Red Adzinlci beans... 

Saddle-beans 

Barley 

6. Oil Cake Meals. 

Cottonseed meal 

Cottonseed meal (un- 

decorticated ) 

Cottonseed feed 

Linseed meal (old 

process) 

Linseed meal (new 

process) 

Flaxseed meal 

Palm-nut meal , 

Corn-oil meal 

derm -oil meal 

Blood meal (Armour's 

Edible) 

Cocoanut meal 

7 Co N Products. 

Chicago gluten meal. . 
Cream gluten meal . . . 
Hammond gluten meal 

King gluten meal 

Buffalo gluten meal . . 
Davenport gluten meal 

Globe eluten meal 

Iowa Golden gluten 
meal 






144 

9 
4 

191 

7 
9 
2 
3 
1 

3 
3 



19 
1 
3 
2 

G3 

7 
18 



Pounds per hundred 



12 2 

9.5 

8.9 

12.0 

9.9 

14.0 

14.0 

14.0 

12.0 



7.6 

8.8 
10.4 

9.8 

9 3 
8.3 
8.5 
9.0 



11.0 
9.0 



9.8 
7.4 

8.2 
8.3 
8.5 
7.7 
8.2 

8.3 



3.3 
5.0 
4.5 
0.2 
4.7 
3.8 
3.6 
5.3 
2.4 



6.6 

4.9 
3.3 

5.5 

5.7 
4.2 
13.6 
2.4 
2.0 

3.1 
4.7 



0.9 
1.6 
1.0 
1.4 
2.8 
1.2 
1.5 

1.0 



21.6 
9.9 
10.7 
7.4 
16.7 
25.8 
21.0 
13.0 
11.2 



44.6 

25.3 
9.3 

33.9 

35.6 
23.9 
14.8 
24.8 
19.6 

84.3 
20.4 



35.9 
41.8 
28.4 
37.2 
26.0 
24.5 
25.9 

29.4 



^ t 



4.1 

7.7 

b'.i 

10.9 
7.0 
4.0 
4.1 
5.7 



4.9 

18.5 
.35.6 

7.3 

8.1 
5.1 

22.8 
6.7 
5.7 



11.0 



1.9 
1 5 
9 
1.4 

6.8 
7.4 
7.9 

3.1 



57.2 
63.2 
^73.3 
80.0 
54.0 
48.6 
56.7 
49.4 
66.8 



25.8 

35.1 

38.7 

35.7 

38.1 
23.8 
37.7 
43.6 
41.6 

1.2 
40.6 



47.0 
32.1 
50.4 
33.2 
52.5 
54.6 
53.5 

46.6 



*Includes fiber. 



COMPOSITION TABLES 353 

Table I. Average Composition op Fodders asd Feeds— Continued 



Corn Products, continued. 

Nebraska gluten meal 

Pekin gluten meal 

Queen gluten meal... 

Rock ford Diamond 
gluten meal 

Star gluten meal 

. Warner's gluten meal 

Waukegan gluten 
meal 

Hominy meal 

Cerealine feed 

Maizeline feed 

Corn bran, fancy 

Corn bran, or sugar 
feed 

Starch feed, wet 

Starch feed, dried 

Corn meal 

Cob meal 

Corn cob 

Corn germ meal 

Corn sprouts 

Corn and oats (prov- 
ender) 

Corn, oats, barley 

Corn screenings 

8. Oat Products. 

Ground oats 

Oat middlings , 

Oat chop 

Oat hulls , 

Hulled oats 

Canada oat feed 

Cream oat feed 

Chester stock food . . , 

Iowa oat feed 

Friends oat feed 

Royal oat feed 

Monarch oat chop . . . . 



CM 




Ponnds per hund 


•ed 




u 


< 


.s 

% 

o 
u 
Oh 




■ o 

S ^ 


1 


8.0 


1.3 


19.6 


6.3 


61.8 


1 







26.1 






15 


8.5 


1.7 


24.2 


6.6 


56.2 


6 






27.0 






2 


7.() 


0.9 


23.2 


6.5 


59.4 


2 


9.1 


1.1 


17.8 


6.5 


62.8 


4 






26.8 






8() 


9 


2.8 


11.0 


3.6 


65 


24 


96 


2.6 


10.5 


5.4 


64.1 


8 


6.8 


3.6 


9.9 


6.7 


65.2 


18 


9.2 


2.6 


12.6 


12.2 


60.0 


28 


8.4 


1.2 


10.0 


11.8 


62.9 


4 


68.8 


0.4 


5.0 


2.9 


19.9 


2 


9.1 


0.9 


14.6 


6.7 


64.0 


110 


12.7 


1.5 


9.0 


1.7 


71.0 


18 


12.6 


1.4 


7.6 


5.6 


69.6 


4 


31.5 


1.0 


1.5 


24.0 


41.7 


2 - 


7.2 


1.6 


11.4 


7.8 


61.2 


1 


8.3 


5.6 


26.0 


5.8 


52.0 


88 


12.0 


2.2 


9.8 


3.3 


68.5 


8 


10.0 


3.1 


11 4 


8 3 


(i2.4 


1 


11.0 


2.1 


7.4 


2 9 


72,6 


5 


10.0 


3.8 


n.i 


9.8 


60.3 


2 


7.8 


3.8 


16.3 


8.2 


56.2 


4 


6.8 


5.9 


8.3 


22.1 


53.8 


11 


7.4 


6.7 


3.4 


30.7 


50.5 


1 


• • . • 


• • . • 


16.2 






3 


7.3 


5.9 


4.4 


28.4 


51.9 


1 


7.4 


8.8 


7.1 


21.7 


51.8 


10 


. • . • 




7.4 


11.1 




1 


8.7 


4.8 


10.6 


18.8 


54.2 


12 


5.9 


5.9 


8.6 


21.0 


55.2 


13 


7.2 


7.3 


70 


24.9 


50.8 


4 


JO.l 


3.4 


8.9 


9.0 


64.6 



3.0 
3.1 

2.8 

3 6 
2.4 
2.7 

3.9 
8 6 
7.8 
7.8 
3.4 

5.7 
3.0 
8.3 
4.1 
3.2 
3 
10.8 
2.3 

4.2 
4.8 
4.0 



5.0 
7.7 
3.1 
1.3 
7.6 
2.1 
3.2 
3.4 
2.9 
3.4 
2.8 
4.0 



354 FOB AGE CROPS 

Table I. Average Composition of Poddebs and Feeds— Continued 









Poi 


mds per hundi 


•ed 






O '^ 


















< 


p 




o y, 
u <s 

^7 4; 

=4-1 




Oat Products, continued 
















Vine oat feed 


17 


7.2 


5.7 


7.0 


25.6 


51.7 


2.8 


"X" oat feed 


1 


6.9 


6.1 


7.5 


22.5 


53.9 


3.1 


9. Wheat Products. 




Wheat flour 


6 
4 


12.4 
12 


0.4 


12.0 
10.2 


"I'.S 


74.0 


1.2 


Ground wheat 


2.0 


Wheat bran 


190 


11.2 


6.0 


16.0 


8.1 


54.1 


4.6 


Wheat middlings, 




white 


91 


11.3 


2.7 


15.8 


3.5 


62.5 


4.2 


Wheat middlings, 




brown 


57 
49 


10.6 
10.1 


3.8 


17.8 
19.4 


5.5 
2.6 


57.0 


5.3 


F^eedinsi' flour 


5.3 


Wheat feed 


:35 


10.8 


4.3 


17.0 


5.1 


58.1 


4.7 


^Vheat cliaff 




11.1 


6.5 


4.3 
15.4 


29.2 


47.5 


1.4 


Wlieat bran aiul oil. . . 


7.9 


(iluten flour whejU 


1 


5 5 


0.4 


84.8 


0.2 


*8 i 


1.0 


Ir utennieal wheat 


2 


8.0 


0.9 


39.8 


0.8 


48.9 


1.6 


10. Rye, Buckwheat, 
















Rice, etc. 
















Ground rye 


1 


12 


. • . • 


9.1 


• • . • 




2.1 


Rye bran 


11 
5 


11.7 
11.8 


3.3 
1.7 


13.9 
14.3 


3.5 
2.4 


64.7 
66.9 


2.9 


Rye rniddlinj?s 


2.9 


Rve feed 


18 


12.0 


1.7 


9 6 


1.5 


73.4 


1.8 


Buckwheat bran 


i:{ 


12.5 


4.2 


20.0 


4.3 


53.6 


5.4 


Buckwheat middlings 


:!() 


13 6 


5.6 


30.5 


3.1 


39.2 


8.0 


Buckwheat feed 


12 


12.3 


4.0 


18.9 


18.3 


41.4 


5.1 


Buckwlieat flour 


5 


14.1 


0.7 


4.8 




79.6 


0.8 


Rice bran, or feed.... 


3 


9.0 


9 2 


11.5 


13.0 


48.0 


9.3 


Rice ])oIish 


1 

4 

i 


9.5 

' s'.s 


6.3 
7.4 


14.3 

2.9 

14.4 


3.3 

33.5 

8.0 


55.4 
47.6 


11.2 


Rice hulls 


1.2 


Rice meal 


14.1 


Barley feed 


7 
o 
o 

1 

2 
1 


9.5 
10.8 
11.0 
10.9 


4.5 
2.5 
2.7 
5.7 


14 4 
27.4 
10.0 
23.2 

8.5 
9.7 


8.7 

.39.7 

3.8 

14.2 

39.3 


58.6 

*.i7.1 

.35.6 

54.9 


4.3 


Pea meal 


2.2 


Pea bran 


1.0 


Bean me id 


1.5 


Peanut bran 


4 4 


F'eanut niiddliui^s ... 


6.5 


Peanut meal ami hulls 


1 


10.9 


2.1 


7.0 


62.9 


14.7 


2.4 



*Includes tiber. 



COMPOSITION TABLES 355 

Table 1. Average Composition of Fodders and Feeds— Continued 



Rye, Buckwheat, Rice, 
etc., continued. 

Peanut meal 

Cocoa shells 

Cocoa dust 

Cocoanut meal 

Clover meal 

Sugar-beet feed, wet.. 
Sugar-beet feed, dried 
Molasses beet feed, 

dried 

Marsden feed, No. 2.. 
Cornaline (coffee 

hulls) 

Cotton hulls 

Cotton hull bran 

Flax seed screenings.. 

11. Brewery and Dis- 

tillery Products. 

Malt sprouts 

Brewers' grains, wet. 
Brewers' grains, 

dried 

Brewers' swill 

Distillery grains, 

dried 

Molasses grains 

Molasses feed 

Molasses, Porto Rico.. 

Atlas gluten meal 

Ajax flakes 

Corn protegran 

Sucrene dairy feed . . . 

Sucrene oil meal 

Grano-gluten feed 

12. Feed Mixtures. 

Blomo feed 

Bibby's dairy cake ... 
Boss corn and oats 

feed 



5 a 
^'^ 



107 
KJ 

119 
1 

9 
6 
2 
2 

3 
4 
1 
4 

3 
6 

5 
4 



Pounds per hundred 



8.0 
2.7 
7.0 
1.0 

89.9 
9.4 

7.6 



11.0 

11.0 

7.0 



9.0 
74.1 

8.5 
94.3 

7.0 
11.4 

10.8 
24.0 

6.5 
7.6 
10.2 
9.0 
6.0 

13.3 
10.0 

9.2 



4.0 

10.7 

6.3 

0.8 



4.4 
6.9 



2.6 
1.9 
5.4 



6.9 
1.0 

3.8 
0.3 

1.6 

7.7 
6.6 
6.8 

2.3' 
1.7 

5. '7* 
2.6 

11.6 

7.7 

4.1 



49.0 
15.5 
14.4 
9.9 
5.8 
1.1 
8.1 

9.6 
4.0 

2.7 

5.3 

2.3 

15.7 



25.8 
64 

25.7 
1.9 

23.7 
19.3 
18.6 
3.1 
.35.0 
32.4 
31.3 
19.6 
23.2 
26.9 

16.3 
19.7 



3.5 
9.9 
5.5 

7.5 
29.2 

17.9 

15.7 

28.4 

58.2 
39.7 
.3.-).0 
16.5 



10.6 
3.7 

13.6 
0.7 

12.8 

10.6 

8.3 



13.0 
12.2 
9!o 
10.7 
11.6 

10.9 
8.6 

12.3 



s S 



^. 2 



24.7 
44.7 
42.7 
15.3 



59.5 
59.8 



.39.0 

48.7 
44.5 



44.9 
12.7 

41.4 
2.0 

44.0 
48.2 
.'^2.9 
66.1 

33.8 
36 4 

48.6 
41.4 

46.9 
44.9 

61.1 



h 



10.8 

16.5 

24.1 

65.5 

3.3 

0.1 

0.7 

0.4 
1.3 

0.6 

2.4 

1.1 

10.9 



2.2 
2.1 

7.0 

0.8 

10.9 

2.8 
2.8 

Y.1.7 
12.0 
10.8 
7.0 
2.8 
11.5 

1.0 
9.1 

4.5 



356 FOB AGE CROPS 

Table I. Average Composition of Fodders and Feeds— Con tiniied 





O to 

. tu 

J >> 

S 3 
P ce 
'A 


Ponnds per hundred 




u 


< 


"p 
0^ 


u 

.0 


'A 




Feed Mixtukes, continued. 
















Buffalo dairy feed 


1 


7.8 


3 8 


15.6 


n.8 


56.7 


4.3 


Buffalo horse feed 


1 


8.2 


3.8 


i:^.:? 


9.0 


60.2 


5.5 


Buffalo stock feed 


1 






9.1 


17 6 




4.6 


Cornelia dairy feed . . . 


1 


9.0 


3.6 


22.7 


5.2 


54.1 


5.4 


Crackerjack dairy 
















feed 


2 


7.1 


7.0 


30.7 


7.6 


35.5 


12.1 


De Fi corn and oats 




feed 


2 


.... 


.... 


8.7 


14.3 




3.1 


Diamond corn and 
















oats feed 


1 






9.7 


8.9 




5.8 


Durham corn and oats 




feed 


1 






7.5 


13.1 




2.8 


Empire feed 


1 


iT.i 


"2.6 


7.8 


7.3 


67.2 


4.0 


Excelsior corn and 




oats feed 


2 
15 


8.9 
8.3 


6.7 
3.6 


9.9 
18.6 


9.0 
12.0 


,59.7 
.53.2 


5.8 


H. 0. dairy feed 


4.3 


H. 0. horse feed 


]8 


9.5 


2.7 


13.2 


9.2 


61.0 


4.4 


Holstein su^^ar feed . . . 


1 


8.0 


6.7 


12.6 


10.0 


60.0 


2.7 


Imperial dairy feed... 


1 


7.6 


4.7 


8.3 


20.0 


56.3 


3.1 


Marsden feed, No. 1.. 


1 






13.7 


12.0 


.... 


5.1 


Macon sugar feed 


2 


' 6.0 


6.6 


14.0 


10.2 


61.6 


1.6 


Nutro-gleu 


1 

4 


8.9 
8.0 


4.7 
2.5 


20.2 
21.8 


7.4 
10.0 


.53.9 
51.1 


4.9 


Proteina 


6.6 


Pars on's Six-Dollar 




feed 


1 
1 


11.0 
11. 1 


7.9 
3.9 


10.0 
7.5 


17.9 
13.7 


51.1 
61.2 


2.1 


Puritan ground feed.. 


2.6 


Quaker dairy feed.... 


26 


7.3 


5.5 


14.4 


15.3 


53.7 


3.8 


Schumacher's stock 
















feed 


10 
1 

1 
33 


8 9 
80 

'9.6 


4.8 
3.9 

4.7 


12.7 

11.5 

8.5 

9.1 


9.0 
11.1 
11.8 
10.5 


.59.0 
62.9 

(32'. .3 


5.6 


Speltz 


2.2 


Star chop 


3.7 


Victor corn and oats. . 


4.4 


13. Stock, Calf and 
















Poultry Feeds. 
















American calf meal. . . 


3 


.... 


.... 


17.3 


2.3 


.... 


8.0 


Blatchford's calf meal 


8 


9.0 


5.5 


25.2 


4.6 


50.6 


5.1 


Cut bone 


1 

5 


26,0 
10.2 


21.5 
3.7 


20.7 
13 8 


'43 


0.2 
61.5 


31.6 


American poultry fee<l 


6.5 


H. O. poultry feed . . 


l.T 


9.0 


2.9 


17.5 


4.7 


60 4 


5.5 


H. 0. scratching feed 


^^ 


10.7 


2.1 


12.5 


2.2 


68.4 


4.1 



COMPOSITION TABLES 357 

Table I. Average Composition of Fodders and Feeds— Continued 





<4-l 

It 




Pounds per liund 


red 






S-i 


< 


o 




Nitrogen- 
free extract 




Stock, Calf and Poultry 
















Feeds, continued. 
















Paine's stocrk food 




11.3 


10.1 


11.3 


10.1 


46 9 


10.3 


Nutriuni milk powder. 




• • . . 


• • • * 


33.8 







0.7 


Animal meal 


IG 


4.8 
7.9 


— 


38.0 
55.5 


.... 


.... 


10 4 


Beef scrap 


15.0 


Raw ground bone 




8.0 


64.4 


23.9 





3.4 


0.3 


Cut clover 


37 


10.0 
6.0 


6.8 
37.4 


17.9 
39.5 


20.5 


41.8 
6.3 


3.0 


Meat and bone meal . . 


10.8 


Meat scrap 


11 


9.0 

7.0 

10.0 


17.6 
33.1 
26.5 


50.8 
39.9 
35.9 




4.5 

5 3 

18.1 


18.1 


Mutton scrap 


14.7 


Granulated milk 


9.6 


Bakery refuse 




13.0 


10.1 


8.0 


0.3 


63.0 


5.6 


Cassava starch refuse 




12.0 


1.6 


0.8 


C.l 


78.8 


0.7 


IMellin's food refuse.. 




7.0 


3.9 


11.4 




(i7.2 


3.4 


Starch refuse 


2 


12.0 


1.8 


4.8 


3.8 


76.3 


1.3 



358 



FORAGE CROPS 



TABLE II 

Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodders and Feeds 





U ID 

!2; 


Pounds per hundred 




o 
u 


'u 

tr. d 

o 

Cm 


O 


1. Gkeen Fodder 


45 

45 
1 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
5 
8 
1 
1 
3 
2 

4 
7 
1 
11 
1 
1 
',) 

20 

3 

12 

6 

1 

33 

20 

14 

39 

1 


0.33 

0.33 
0.2(] 
0.24 
0.28 
0.35 
0.28 
0.27 
0.29 
0.30 
0..32 
0.G4 
0.32 
0.27 
0.18 
0.29 
0.19 
0.20 
0.43 
0.90 
0.30 

o.:t2 

0.40 
0.3S 
0.72 

0.54 
0.50 
0.47 
0.53 
0.43 
0.58 
0.47 
0.44 
0.03 
0.55 


0.13 

O.IJ 
0.12 
0.10 
0.14 
0.06 
0.15 
0.11 
0.13 
0.12 
0.17 
0.16 
0.13 
0.11 
0.15 
0.11 
0.08 
0.09 
0.13 
0.26 
12 
0.17 
0.10 
16 
0.19 

0.12 
0.12 
0.12 
0.15 
0.12 
0.12 
0.13 
0.1 i 
0.14 
0.14 


0.31 


a. Cereals and Grasses. 

Corn 


0.31 


White Thorouiifhbred Flint corn 

Southern White corn 


0.28 
0.24 


S weet corn 


0.38 


Teosinte 


0.92 


Rural Branchiujj^ doura 


0.46 


Yellow niilo maize 


0.57 


Red kaflr corn 


0.45 


White katir corn 


0.50 


Brooni-corn 


0.70 


Japan broom corn millet 


0.73 


Japan millet 


0.43 


Barnyard millet 


0.58 


Pearl millet 


0.71 


Millet 


0.43 


Sorg^hum 


0.24 


Sugar-cane 


0.44 


Orchard-^rass 


0.56 


Pasture-grass 


0.74 


Hungarian grass 


0.42 


Rye 


0.60 


Barley 


54 


Wheat 


0.00 


Oats 


0.56 


6. Legumes. 

Red clover 


0.67 


Mammoth red clover 


0.27* 


Crimson clover 


39 


Alsike clover 


0..50 


Sweet clover 


0.40 


Alfalfa 


0.50 


Cowpea 


0.46 


Canada field poa 


0.42 


Soybean 


0..56 


Velvet-bean 


0.57 







* Below normsil evidently. 



FERTILIZER INGREDIEJSTS 359 

Table II. Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodders and Feeds — Continued 



GitEEN Foi'DER— Legumes, eontiuued. 

Sand vetch 

Rape 

Horse bean 

White lupine 

Yellow lupine 

Flat pea 

Small pea 

Sainfoin 

Serradella 

Sulla 

Spring vetch 

Kidney vetch 

Oats and peas 

Oats and vetch 

c. Miscellaneous. 

Apple pomace 

Carrot tops 

Pricliley comfrey 

Common buckwheat 

Japanese buckwheat 

Silver-hull buckwheat 

2. Silage. 

Corn 

Corn and soybean 

Millet and soybean 

Millet 

Sorghum 

Red clover 

Brewers' grains 

Rye 

Cowpea 

Soybean 

3. Hay and Dried Coarse Fodder. 

Corn ^ . 

Oats 

a . Or a s ses. Ha y . 

Orchard-grass 

Timothy 






1 
1 
I 
1 
1 

1 

5 
3 
fi 
1 
4 
1 
1 
1 

04 
3 

7 
18 



Pounds per hundred 



0.55 
0.35 
0.41 
0.45 
0.40 
0.75 
40 
0.()8 
0.3(i 
O.CS 
0.30 
0.44 
0.33 
0.30 

0.21 
0.(i9 
0.37 
0.44 
0.20 
0.29 

0..33 
0.05 
0.42 
0.20 
0.13 
0.01 
1.01 
0.38 
0.44 
0.71 

0.78 

1.87 

1.07 
1.08 



0.14 
0.12 
0.05 
0.05 
0.09 
0.10 
0.09 
0.20 
0.12 
0.12 
0.10 
0.08 
0.15 
0.14 

0.02 
0.13 
0.12 
0.09 
14 
0.14 

0.12 
0.15 
0.11 
0.14 
0.15 



0.15 
0.10 

0.28 
0.05 

0.33 
0.35 



0..52 
0.02 
0.21 
0.26 
0.44 
0.32 
0.31 
0.57 
0.37 
0.58 
0.45 
0.28 
0.50 
0.30 

0.12 
1.08 
0.76 
0.54 
0..53 
0.39 

0.30 
0.36 
0.44 
0.02 
0.19 



0.46 
0.75 

l.OO 
1.90 

1.62 
1.34 



360 FOB AGE CBOPS 

Table II. Fertilizer Ingredients op Fodders and Feeds — Continued 



Hay and Dried Coarse Fodder— Grasses 
Hay, coutiuued. 

Hungarian grass 

Sliort sedge , 

Creek sedge 

Herd grass 

Salt marsh hay 

Salt hay 

Black grass 

Marsh rosemary 

Bog hay 

Barnyard millet 

Italian rye-grass , 

Kentucky blue-grass 

Meadow fescue , 

Perennial rye-grass , 

Red-top 

English hay (mixed) 

Rowen , 

Branch grass 

Fox grass 

h. Legumes, Hay. 

Red clover 

Mam moth red clover , 

Alsike , 

White clover 

Crimson clover , 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Oats and pea 

Oats and vetch , 

c. Straw. 

Oats and pea , 

Wheat 

Rye 

Oats 

Buckwheat 

Barley 

Soybean 

Millet 



u * 



9 
1 
2 

1 

1 
4 
1 
2 

:? 
4 
2 

fi 

o 
4 

i:{ 
1 
1 

22 
3 

7 
1 

'^ 



Pounds per hundred 



] 00 

o.u; 
1.3:5 
1.00 
0.7:5 

1.05 
1.07 
84 
1.23 
1.20 
1.12 
1.20 
0.93 
I.IG 
1.07 
1.34 
1.72 
l.OG 
1.18 

2.09 
2.14 
2.04 
2.2.5 
2.48 
2.0(5 
2.48 
1.05 
2.00 

0.74 
0.43 
50 
0.05 
1.24 
0.95 
0.09 
0.08 



p. o 



0.43 
0.14 
0.03 
0.:55 
0.09 
0.23 

6.06 
0.18 
0.43 
0.53 
0.:59 

o.:{7 

0.53 

o.:53 

0.:52 
0.48 
0.19 
0.18 

0.43 
0.52 
0.51 
0.25 
0.G2 
0.54 
0.66 
0.61 
0.60 

0.39 
0.1:5 
0.29 
0.22 
0.13 
0.19 
0.25 
0.18 



1.54 
1.13 
0.53 
1..57 

0.82 
0.64 

0.27 
0.73 
2.88 
1.19 
1.54 
1.98 
1.47 
0.95 
1.61 
1.58 
0.87 
0.95 

2.08 
1.16 
1.12 
1.06 
2.11 
2.46 
2.36 
1.81 
1.27 

3.20 
0.74 
0.79 
1.22 
1.14 
2.03 
1.04 
1.73 



FERTILIZER IXGREDIENTS 361 

Table II. Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodders and Feeds — Continued 







Pounds per hundred 




p 


Si 

o 


Potash 


Hay and Dried Coarse Fodder, con- 
tinued 

d. Miscellayieons. 

Broom-corn waste (stalks) 

Palmetto root 


1 
1 
1 
1 

4 
1 
1 

8 
1 
.*{ 

;{ 

1 

5 
1 
4 

15 
20 

21 
I 
1 
1 
1 
1 
2 

1 

1 
2 

i 

1 
1 


0.87 
0.54 
O.C.I 
0.20 

0.20 
0.19 
0.40 
24 
0.2:? 

O.l.T 

o.k; 

0.22 
0.29 
0.08 

17 
0.19 

1.48 
1.81 
1.G2 
1.73 
1.G2 
5.30 
3.27 
3.45 
2.08 
3.12 
4.10 

1 59 
1.71 

2 00 
1..5S 
1.08 
2.08 


0.47 
O.Hi 
0.(i7 
0.41 

0.12 
O.tiO 
0.17 
0.09 
0.11 
0.14 
0.09 
0.19 
0.08 
0.05 
0.12 
0.12 

0.61 
0.77 
0.81 
0.9G 
0.78 
1.87 
0.95 
1.00 
1.49 
1.01 
1.20 
0.47 
0.72 
95 
03 
0.18 
1.02 


1.87 
1.37 


Spanish moss 


0.50 


White daisy 


1.18 


4. Roots, etc. 

Sufjcar-beets 


0.48 


Manj^le-wurzel 


0.46 


Artit'holie 


0.48 


Beets , red 


0.44 


Beets, yellow fodder 


5(i 


Mangolds 


0.34 


Carrots 


4(5 


Parsnips 


0.62 


Potatoes 


0.51 


Japanese radish 


0.40 


Turnips 


0.38 


Rutabai^as 


0.49 


5. Grain and Other Seeds. 

Corn 


0.36 


Oats 


57 


Rve 


52 


Wheat 


35 


Buokwheat 


59 


Soybean 


1 99 


Red Adzuki bean 


1 55 


White Adzuki bean 


1.53 


Saddle-beau 


2.09 




1.20 


Horse bean 


1.29 


Hungarian grass seed 


0.38 


Broom -corn seed 


0..52 


Common millet seed 


0.45 


Japanese Millet seed 

Rice 


0.35 
09 


Oats and peas ... 


92 







362 FORAGE CROPS 

Table II. Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodders and Feeds— Coutinuod 



Oil. Cake Meals. 

Cottonseed meal 

Cottonseed meal, Undecorticated 

Cottonseed feed 

Linseed meal, old process 

Linseed meal, new process 

Flaxseed meal 

Palm-nut meal 

Cocoanut cake 

Corn-oil meal 

Germ-oil meal 

Corn Products, 

Chicago gluten meal 

Cream gluten meal 

Hammond gluten meal 

King gluten meal , 

Buffalo gluten meal , 

Davenport gluten meal , 

Globe gluten meal , 

Iowa gluten meal 

Nebraska gluten meal 

Pekin gluten feed 

Queen gluten feed 

Rockford Diamond gluten feed . 

Star gluten feed 

Warner's gluten feed 

Waukegan gluten feed 

Hominy meal , 

Cerealine feed , 

Maizeline feed 

Corn bran , fancy 

Corn bran, or sugar feed , 

Starch feed, wet . . , 

Starch feed, dried , 

Corn meal , 

Cob meal 

Corn cob 

(^orn germ meal 

Corn sprouts 

Corn and oats (j^rovender) 

Corn and cob meal 



Pouuds per hundred 



a s 
1 ^ 


c 


p. 3 

to c« 
O 


in 

o 


U4 


7.14 


3 09 


1.82 


9 


4.04 


1.85 


1.48 


4 


1.49 


0.45 


1.10 


191 


5.43 


1.88 


1.31 


7 


5.70 


2.16 


1.49 


9 


3.82 


1.30 


0.93 


2 


2.r>9 


1.10 


0.50 


1 


3.88 


1.60 


2.40 


.*{ 


3.97 


1.40 


0.18 


1 


3.13 


0.91 


0.08 


19 


5.74 


0.34 


0.06 


1 


«.t;8 


0.31 


0.06 


3 


4.54 


0.50 


0.08 




5.95 


0.66 


0.06 


n:? 


4.1(i 


1.15 


0.57 


7 


3.92 


• • . • 


. • . . 


18 


4.14 


0.62 


0.12 


2 


4.70 


0.43 


0.08 


1 


3.14 


0.44 


0.08 


1 


4.18 




• • . • 


15 


3.87 


6.37 


0.04 


6 


4.32 


• • . • 


• . . . 


2 


3.72 


0.33 




2 


2.80 


0..32 


0.05 


4 


4.29 


.... 


.... 


86 


1.75 


1.40 


0.75 


24 


1.G8 


1.27 


0.67 


8 


1.58 


1.41 


0.78 


18 


2.02 


1.01 


0.62 


28 


l.GO 


0.22 


0.09 


4 


0.80 


0.05 


0.02 


') 


2.34 


.... 


. • . • 


110 


1.44 


0.63 


0.37 


18 


1.22 


0.55 


0.46 


4 


0.24 


0.07 


0.29 


o 


1.82 


0.39 


0.21 


1 


4.10 


1.54 


1.84 


88 


1.57 


0.71 


0.A4 


29 


1.38 


0.56 


0.46 



FERTILIZER INGREDIENTS 



363 



Table II Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodders and Feeds— Continued 



8. Oat Products. 



Ground oats 

Oat middlings 

Oat chop 

Oat hulls 

Hulled oats 

Canada oat feed . . . 

Cream oat feed 

Chester stock food, 
Friend's oat feed... 

Iowa oat feed 

Monarch oat chop . 

Royal oat feed 

Vim oat feed 

«X" oat feed 



Wheat Products. 

Wheat flour 

Wheat bran , 

Wheat middlings, white. 
Wheat middlings, brown 

Feeding flour, dark , 

Wheat feed 

Wheat chaff 

Damaged wheat 



10. 



Rye, Buckwheat, Rice, etc. 

Rye bran 

Rye middlings 

Rye feed 

Buckwheat bran 

Buckwheat middlings 

Buckwheat feed 

Buckwheat flour 

Buckwheat hulls 

Rice bran 

Rice polish 

Rice hulls 

Barley feed 

Ground barley 

Pea meal 






Pounds per hundred 



2 

4 

11 

1 

3 
1 
10 
12 
1 
4 

in 

17 

1 





190 
91 
f)? 
49 
35 



11 

5 

18 

13 

30 

12 

5 

1 

3 

1 

4 

7 

1 

Q 



1.78 
2.01 
1.34 
0.54 
2.59 
0.71 
1.14 
1.18 
1.38 
1.70 
1.42 
1.12 
1.12 
1.20 



1.92 
2.56 
2.53 
2.85 
3.18 
2.72 
0.09 
2. 20 



2.25 
2.29 
1.54 
3.20 
4. 88 
3.02 
0.77 
0.49 
0.71 
2.29 
0.58 
2.30 
1.50 
4.39 



O 



0.70 
1.27 
0.00 
0.24 

6.'31 
0.5G 

6.62 
0.48 
0.03 
0.48 
0.50 
0.61 



2.20 
2.92 
1.34 
1.87 
2.14 
2.04 
0.95 
0.83 



1.54 
0.56 
0.77 
1.77 
2.00 
1.58 
0.,52 
0.07 
0.29 
3.29 
0.17 
1.29 

m 

0.91 



0.50 
0.72 
0.69 
0.52 

0.62 
0.66 

0.65 
0.53 
0.46 
0.70 
69 
0.73 



1.50 
1..57 
0.70 
0.94 
1.09 
0.54 
0.56 
0.51 



0.95 
0.49 
0.47 
0.93 
1.33 
1.05 
0.16 
0..52 
0.24 
1.19 
0.14 
90 
0.34 
0.99 



364 FOE AGE CHOPS 

Table II. Fertilizer Ingredients op Fodders and Feeds — Continued 



Rye, Bttokwheat, Rice, etc., contiimed 

Pea feed 

Bean meal 

Peanut meal and hulls 

Peanut feed 

Peanut husks 

Cocoa shells 

Cocoa dust 

Clover meal 

Siiiifar-beet feed, dry 

Moliisses beet feed, dried 

Cotton hulls , 

11. Brewery and Distillery Pro 

DUCTS. 

Malt sprouts , 

Brewers' i::rains, wet 

Brewers' grains, dried 

Distillery graiiis, dried , 

Molasses grains 

Molasses feed , 

Molasses, Porto Rico 

Ajax flakes 

Corn protegran 

Sucrene dairy feed 

Crano gluten feed 

12. Feed Mixtures. 

Bibby's dairy cake 

Blomo feed 

Blood meal, Armour's 

Boss corn and oats . , . : 

Buffalo dairy feed 

Buffalo horse feed 

(!ornelia dairy feed 

Crackei'jack dairy feed 

Empire feed 

Excelsior corn and oats feed 

H. O. dairy feed 

H. O. horse feed 

Imperial dairy feed 



§i 



107 
V.\ 

119 
9 
G 
2 

1 
4 
1 

4 
6 



1 
5 
1 
8 
1 
1 
1 
2 
1 
'2 

18 
1 



Pounds per hundred 



:^ 



2.:i9 
:?.72 

1.1.'! 

].4<; 

0.80 
2.48 

2.:{0 

0.9:5 
1.29 
1.54 
0.75 



4.1.1 
1.(12 
4.11 
;{ 79 
;i.09 
2.98 
O.f)! 

r).i9 

5.01 
3.14 
4.30 



2.94 
2.61 
13.55 
1.40 
2.49 
2.13 
3.03 
4.92 
1.25 
1.58 
2.98 
2 11 
1.32 



0.72 

0.94 
0.15 
0.23 
0.13 
1.14 
1.34 

6.24 
0.15 

0.18 



1.01 
0.26 
1.01 
0.(50 
0.85 
0.82 
0.12 
0.(J8 
0.58 
0.60 
0.65 



2.07 
0.45 
0.26 
0.88 
0.89 
1.01 
1.45 
2.24 
0.83 
0.99 
86 
0.99 
0.47 



Pm 



0.72 
1.45 
0.62 
0.79 
0.48 
2.39 
0.63 

0.57 
1.81 
1.08 



1.78 
0.03 
0.08 
0.17 
2.11 
1.96 
3.68 
0.18 
0.11 
0.24 
0.19 



1.07 
2.54 
0.18 
0.63 
0.56 
0.70 
0.85 
1.70 
0.54 
0.73 
0.61 
0.60 
0.51 



FERTILIZER INGREDIENTS 



365 



Table II. Fertilizer Ingredients of Fodders and Feeds — Continued 



Feed Mixtures, continned 

Marsden feed, No. 1 

Nutro-glen 

Proteiua 

Puritan f^round feed 

Quaker dairy feed 

Schuniaclier's stock feed 

Star chop 

Victor corn and oats feed 

13. Stock, Calf and Poultry Feeds 

American calf meal 

Blatchford's calf meal 

American poultry feed 

H. O. poultry feed 

H. O. scratcliiiig feed 

Paine's stock food 

Nutrium milk powder 

Animal meal 

Beef scraps 

Meat and bone meal 

Meat scraps 



1 
1 
1 
1 

L'G 

10 

1 

33 



3 
8 
.5 

15 
3 
1 
1 
7 

IG 

in 

4 



Pounds per hundred 



"A 



2.10 
3.23 
3.04 
1.20 
2.30 
2.03 
1.3G 
1.4G 



4.03 
2.21 
2.80 
1.09 
1.80 
5.41 
G.08 
8.88 
.5.02 
7.G3 



o^ 



0-1 



2.05 
1 02 
0..55 
0.08 
1.15 



1.45 
1.21 
1..T2 
i>5 
1.08 



14.G8 
8.11 



1.20 

0.58 
0.58 
0.89 
0,75 

6. GO 



1.13 
0.91 
0.73 

0.48 
0.82 



\i}() 



FOBAGE CHOPS 



TABLE III 

Coefficients of Digestibility of Feed Stuffs 
1. Experiments with Ruminants 





Per cent 




u 

a 

Q 


.2 u 

5a 





6 

u 

p. g 

t 




6 


. 


C5 


1. Green Fodders 
















a. Cereals avd Grasses. 
















Corn, dent, ininiature. 


08 




42 


00 


05 


71 


08 


Corn, dent, mature... 


08 


'72' 


34 


53 


57 


73 


74 


Corn, dent, nmture, 
















Bund W., coarse . . . 


52 





.... 


24 


40 


59 


78 


Corn, Eureka, silage, 
















just forming ears .. 


07 





42 


07 


on 


72 


00 


Corn, San ford, mature 


09 


'71 


34 


52 


75 


71 


06 


Corn, sweet, milk stage 


77 







77 


75 


81 


74 


Corn, sweet, roasting 


.... 


*72* 


'48* 


02 


00 


77 


74 


Millet, barnyard. 
















blossom 


70 




56 


05 


73 


71 


58 


Millet, Japanese 





04* 


55 


50 


62 


07 


68 


Hungarian grass 


00 


68 





03 


70 


(i7 


62 


Sorghum 


07 






40 


59 


74 


74 


Barley, bloom 




'07* 




72 


01 


71 


60 


Barley, seeds forming 




08 


'42 


09 


5(5 


74 


49 


Oat 




62 


00 


73 
79 
05 


55 
80 
74 


62 
71 
72 


69 


Kye 


'74* 
09 


74 


Grass, meadow, young 


55 


Grass, meadow, young 
















dried 


71 
04 


.... 


"32' 


71 

48 


77 
50 


73 
60 


60 


Timothy 


52 


Timothy rowen 





'eo' 


.... 


72 


04 


08 


5;^ 


■'. Legumes. 
















Alfalfa 


01 


.... 


40 


74 


43 


72 


39 


Soybeans, m e d i u ni 




green, blossom. . . . 


.... 


03 


25 


77 


47 


71 


50 


Soybeans, m e d i u m 
















green, seeding 


05 


07 


28 


78 


45 


77 


55 


Crimson clover, blos- 
















som 


.... 


69 





77 
07 


50 
53 


74 

78 


66 


Red clover, blossom.. 


go' 


65 


(Clover rowen, blossom 


.... 


"oi" 


.... 


02 


52 


05 


61 


Cowpens, re;idy for 
















soiling 


08 


74 


23 


70 


00 


81 


59 







COEFFICIENTS 



367 



Table III. Coefficients of Digestibility of Feed Stuffs— Continued 
1. Experiments with Ruminants 



Green Foddkrs, continued 
Ciiuada fleld peas, 

iR'fore bloom 

Canada tield peas, 

bloom to seeding . . 

Si)ring vetch 

Winter vetch 

Dwarf Essex rape 

Barley and peas, bloom 
Oats and peas, bloom 
Oats and peas, seed.. 
Oats and spring vetch, 

bloom 

Winter wheat and 

hairy vetch 

2. Silage. 

Corn, dent 

Corn, tiint, mature, 

.small varieties 

Corn, flint, earing, 

\-AY^e 

Corn, fine crushed, 

steers 

Corn, fine crushed, 

sheep 

Corn, mature, fed raw 
Corn, mature, cooked 

Corn, steamed 

Corn, sweet, mature . 
Kafir corn, mature ... 

Sorghum, mature 

Soybean and barnyard 

millet 

Soybean and corn 

(9-14) 

Clover 

Soybean 

Cowpea 



Per cent 



G8 

04 
(J2 
71 

85 



C7 
G9 

64 

7.T 

70 
64 
54 



73 

68 
55 

57 

59 

69 
44 
56 
60 



tt it 



65 

68 
62 



70 

77 



76 
70 
57 
59 



45 
67 



37 
17 
42 
63 
54 
49 
47 

53 

44 

37 



34 



48 



p. s 



42 

36 



82 

81 
71 
83 
89 
75 
74 
74 

75 



49 
65 
56 

38 

21 
45 
39 
55 
54 
28 
9 

57 

63 
35 
66 
57 



* 


1 o 


62 


71 


45 


76 


44 


76 


63 


77 


87 


92 


52 


68 


64 


72 


55 


63 


68 


68 


68 


73 


65 


69 


77 


79 


72 


7(5 


75 


65 


64 


55 


59 


71 


70 


75 


76 


76 


71 


72 


57 


62 


58 


64 


69 


59 


62 


78 


48 


45 


53 


()5 


52 


72 



55 
59 
71 
48 
59 
64 
64 

47 

57 

77 
82 



GS 
86 
87 
90 
83 
50 
56 

72 

83 
45 
57 
63 



368 



FORAGE CROPS 



Table III. Coefficients of Digestibility of Feed Stuffs— Continued 
1. Experiments with Ruminants 



Silage continued 

Outs and pen 

Corn: lA Sunflower 
heads ViA. Horse- 
beans 3^A 

Corn: lA Sunflower 
plant 3tA. Horse- 
beans y^A 

3. Hay and Dried 
Coarse Fodders. 
a. Cereal Fodders 
Corn, dent, immature 
Corn, dent, mature... 
Corn, flint, ears form- 
ing 

Corn, flint, mature... 
Corn, sweet, mature . 

Corn, stover 

Barley hay 

Oat-hay 

Oat-straw 

6. Grasses and Millets. 

Mixed grasses (8-10 
per cent protein ) . . . 

I\Iixed grasses, tim- 
othy predominating 

Meadow, swale or 
swamp hay 

Tall oat grass 

Wild oat grass 

Orchard-grass 

Pasture grass 

Prairie grass 

Red-top 

Rowen 

Black grass 

Branch grass 

Flat sage 







u 

s 


r- Oi 


G3 


67 


CO 


68 


65 


69 


G2 


63 


GG 


.... 


70 


71 


70 




G7 


70 


57 


55 


50 


62 


54 


54 


50 


52 


GO 


62 


55 


58 


39 




55 


.... 


G4 


65 


56 


56 


73 


73 


56 


.... 


60 


61 


. . • • 


65 


56 


• • . . 


52 


. • • • 


57 


.... 



Per cent 



a 



41 
26 

43 



41 

39' 

47 
30 

'41' 



o 



69 
58 
62 



63 



58 



50 
45 

70 
64 
64 
36 
65 
53 



47 

34 
51 
58 
60 
73 
18 
61 
()9 
58 
56 
52 



U 



§1 
X 

^ 2 


61 


67 


60 


72 


G5 


74 


67 


62 


63 


73 


72 


71 


76 


71 


74 


68 


64 


59 


62 


63 


51 


55 


58 


53 


60 


61 


65 


59 


33 


46 


55 


58 


68 


65 


61 


55 


76 


74 


61 


61 


61 


62 


66 


64 


59 


52 


54 


49 


60 


55 



COEFFICIENTS 



369 



Table III. Coefficients of Digestibility of Feed Stuffs — Contiinifd 
1. Experiments with Ruminants 





Per cent 




u 




U3 




u 


^ 






4) 


t^ u 


£ 




c ^ 


rt 




«« 


'3i 


53 


p. a 


tG 


M 

6r -^ 


«*-( 




s 
b 


it ^ 
C " 







U 








Hay and Driep Coarse 
















FoDDKKS — Grasses ami 
















Millets, continued 
















Fox firass 


54 
54 





58 
69 


60 
42 


53 

58 


53 

52 


36 


8alt iiay, mixture 


28 


l iiuothy 


55 


'56' 


39 


48 


50 


62 


50 


Tiuiothy, cottouseed 




iiieal 


50 





16 


20 


41 


62 


59 


Timothy and clover, 




poorly cured 


55 


.... 




38 


53 


60 


58 


Timothy and red-top . 


. 54 




'i9 


:!9 


55 


60 


42 


Witch grass 


61 

54 


62 


in 


58 
23 


62 
56 


66 

58 


57 


Golden millet 


49 


Hungarian grass 


65 


m 


.... 


60 


68 


67 


64 


Millet 


56 
61 




24 

8 


31 

.38 


63 
60 


56 
(i6 


50 


Kafir corn, fodder 


61 


Kaflr corn, stover 


57 




24 


34 


67 


60 


75 


Sorghum fo<lder, Min- 
















nesota Early Ani))er 


58 


54 


44 


43 


49 


61 


65 


S o r g h u m fodder 
















leaves 


(3 


.... 


.... 


61 


70 


65 


47 


Sorghum fodder ba- 
















irasse 


61 






14 


64 


65 


46 


c. legumes. 




Alfalfa 


62 
62 
59 


(if)' 


53 
42 


72 
71 
6() 


47 

(;i 

50 


72 

69 
66 


43 


Sovl)eaii 


29 


Ch)ver, alsike 


38 


Clover, crimson 


62 


56 




69 


45 


62 


44 


Clover, red 


57 
66 


54 
67 


'30 


58 
73 


54 
61 


64 
70 


55 


Clover, white 


51 


(^lover rowen 




59 


46 


65 


47 


63 


60 


Cowpea 


59 






65 


43 


71 


50 


Peanut vine 


60 
66 
69 


'67' 


'5.3' 
42 


63 
70 

82 


52 
58 
61 


70 
72 

73 


66 


S|tring vetch 


71 


Winter vetch 


70 


Oats and vetch 


58 


'58 


.")(•) 


65 


55 


59 


55 


Wheat and sand vetch 


66 




47 


74 


65 


68 


64 


Oats an<l peas 


61 


60 


58 


73 


58 


61 


59 



370 



FORAGE CHOPS 



Table III. Coefficients of Digestibility of Feed Stuffs— CoiitiniKd 
1. Experiments with Ruminants 



Hay and Dried Coarse 
Fodders, continued 
d. MisccUaneoHS. 

Buttercups 

Cottonseed feed 

Cottonseed lull Is . . . . 

|Saltl)Ush 

White weed 

4. Roots and Tubers. 

Sii^ar l)eets 

Mangolds 

Potatoes 

Rutabagas 

English flat turnips. 

5. C<>ncentrated Feed 

Stuffs. 
a. Protein 

Soybean meal, variety 
unknown , 

Soybean meal, me- 
dium green, coarse 

Bibby's dairy cake.. 

Blood meal, Armour's 

Brewers' dried grains 

Buckwheat mi(bllings 

Cottonseed, raw , 

Cottonseed, roasted . 

Cottonseed meal 

H. O. dairy feed 

Distillers' dried 
grains, largely from 
rye 

Distillers' dried 
grains, largely from 
corn 

Germ oil meal 

CInten feed . 

Gluten meal 



Per cent 



50 
52 
41 

40 

58 

95 

70 

77 
87 
93 



78 

90 
70 

(>2 
75 
66 
56 

79 
65 



58 



79 
7() 
^6 

87 



txi s 

O " 



57 



?A 

58 

99 
85 
78 
91 
96 



88 



9:! 



o 



30 
72' 



33 



36 



84 



p. s 



56 

51 

6 

06 

58 

91 
75 
44 
80 
90 



90 

91 
66 

8t 
81 
85 
68 
■17 
84 
76 



59 



73 
73 

85 
88 



41 
Ai\ 

47 

8 

46 

]()0 
43 

74 
100 



33 



49 
17 
76 
60 
.35 
35 



67 
55 
34 
49 
67 

100 
91 
91 
95 
97 



81 
81 

"57* 
83 
.50 
51 

78 



67 



81 

76 
89 

88 



o 



70 
86 
79 
52 
62 

50 

13" 

84 



89 

93 

02 

89* 

89 

87 

72 

94 

84 



84 



95 
96 
83 
9:5 



COEFFl C IF NTS 



ori 



Di 



Table III. Coefficients of Dkiestibility of P^'eed Stuffs— Continued 
1. Experiments with Ruminants 









Per cent 








a 

b 


u - 

C " 




c 

u 




0.' 


i2| 


pi 

c 


Concentrated Feed Stuff, 
















con tinned 
















Linseed meal, old 
















process 


79 






89 


57 


78 


89 


Linseed meal, new- 
















process 


82 
07 
82 

84 


79 

68 


19 


84 
80 
70 

84 


74 
34 
99 
72 


80 
69 

85 
85 


89 


Malt sprouts 


100 


Malt sprouts (Mass.) 
]Maize feed (Chicago) 


87 
90 


Oat middlintcs, flue . . 


•)0 




30 


81 


49 


90 


94 


Pea meal 


87 


'88 




8.3 


20 


94 


55 


( 'owpea meal 


87 





'33* 


82 


04 


93 


74 


Kye feed, bran and 




middlings 


82 
GO 





3.5 


80 
77 


39' 


88 
71 


90 


Wheat bran 


63 


Wlieat feed, flour 


07 


70 




79 




70 


. • . • 


Wheat middlings, flour 


82 


83 





88 


30 


88 


86 


Wlieat middlings. 
















standard 




73 


25 


77 


30 


78 


88 


Wlieat, mixed feed. 
















bran and middlings 


73 


70 


37 


78 


02 


77 


87 


Wheat, mixed feed. 
















atlnlterated, and 
















corn-cobs 


62 


04 


31 


63 


28 


71 


92 


b. Starchy Materials. 




Cerealine feed 


no 







80 


82 


95 


81 


Chop feed, corn, bran 
















and germs 


80 
70 
59 
88 
79 


iio* 




07 
54 
17 
66 
52 


02 
59 
65 

45 


84 
77 
00 
92 

88 


82 


Corn bran 


77 


Corn-col)s 


£0 


Corn meal 


91 


Corn and cob meal . . . 


84 


Corn and oat feed, 
















Victor 


7') 






71 


48 


83 


87 


Kafir corn kernels . . . 


4.'', 


.... 




41 




45 


.... 


Kafir corn meal 


()0 







53 




77 


46 


White Kafir heads .. 


2t 




54 


12 


'27" 


31 


31 


Dairy feed, Quaker .. 


02 


52' 


.... 


70 


55 


59 


74 






FOB AGE CROPS 



Tai^le III. Coefficients of Digestibility op Feed Stuffs— Contiiiuod 
1. Experiments with Ruminants 





Per cent 




Is 
2 


.2 u 

O 3 


IT. 

Si 

<B 
p 

6 


6 
p. - 

£ 


G 


2 1 


■1-1 

O 


Lonckntrated Feed 
Stuffs, contimied 

riomiiiy meal 

Horse feed, H. 

Alma dried molasses 

beet l)ulp 

Blomo feed 

Maeoii su^ar feed 

Holstein sugar feed.. 
Sucrene dairy feed . . . 

Oats, ungrouiid 

Oat feed, Koyal 

Oat feed, excessive 

hulls 

Parson's Six Dolhtr 

feed 

Peanut feed, largely 

husks 


82 
74 

85 
(57 
71 
71 
09 
70 
47 

:^4 
r.(i 
:!2 

74 
(i2 

87 
83 


"is 
ii 

48 


37 

G2 
32 
20 

33 
3H 
25 
37 

13 

12 


65 
70 

64 
63 
59 

('>! 

77 
()9 

62 

59 

71 

62 


67 

56 

84 
61 
44 
44 
72 
31 
33 

32 

47 

12 

21 

''2 


89 
83 

91 

■ 76 
82 
81 
73 
77 
51 

33 

64 

49 
92 
78 
92 
93 


92 

80 

16 

82 
88 
95 
89 

88 

92 
81 
90 


Rice meal 


91 


Rice brati 


18 


6t 


72 


Rve meal 


84 
31 VS 


64 


Rice polish 


74 



COEFFICIENTS 



0-70 



Table III. Coeffh ients of Digestibility of Feed Stuffs — Continued 
2. Experiments with Swine 



Barlej' meal 

Linseed meal, old process 

Maize liernels 

Maize meal 

^Taize meal, wiili cohs.. . 

Ho.<j^ millet seed 

Pea meal 

Potatoes.. 

Wlieat, whole 

Wheat, cracked 

Wlieat, shorts (Mii<klliii<;s) 
Wheat bran 



80 
77 

s:' 
fio 

7(1 
7.! 
90 
!»7 
71 
S'i 
77 
(16 






80 

8:5 

92 



92 



Per cent 



81 

80 
09 
88 
70 
OS 
89 
81 
70 
80 
7:5 
75 



49 

12 
:!8 

:i9 

29 
78 
.'{0 

(;o 

.'! ( 
34 



y. t 



85 
89 
94 
84 
92 
95 
98 
74 

s;> 

87 
00 



80 
40 
80 
82 
59 
50 

60' 
70 



3. Experiments with Horses 









Per cen 


t 








S 


ts, S 

^ 


a 


Crude pro- 
tein 




4J 

u « 

y. 2 


cS 




Corn kernels 


88 

50 
72 
70 
44 


.... 


20 

22 
3;{ 
29 
34 


58 
70 

08 
80 
82 
21 


55 
31 
14 
43 


88 
9(J 

-17 
79 

80 
47 


48 


( "oru meal . 


73 


Corn stover, minus pith, 

Marsden's 

Oat kernels 


no 

82 


Oar, ground 

Timothy hay 


80 
47 







374 FOE AGE CROPS 

Table III. Coefficients of Dioestibility of Feed Stuffs — Continued 
4. Experiments with Poultry 





Per cent 




u 


6 ^ 


O 


6 

u 

a. .^ 




(^1 Sh 


OJ 


Corn kernels 




8(; 

S7 
8;') 
88 
87 
87 
(14 
71 
72 




84 

48 

5:5 
^:i 
•n 

74 
40 


15 
'JO 

18 
10 


89 
ill 
1»G 
96 

ii' 

87 
88 
89 


92 


C'orn kernels 








85 


Corn meal 




93 


K;itir corn kernels 

Kafir corn meal 

Meat 

Oats 

Cowpeas 


.... 

.... 


74 
83 
87 
81 
89 


(^'owpea meal. 


89 


\Vheat 


59 











INDEX 



Adaptation of crop to soil (see Soil), 24. 

Afiic;ui millet, 103. 

Aliil);iina: 

Bermuda-grass, 333. 

Experiment Station, 23. 

Rotation for South, 22. 
Alfalfa, 17, 201>-228. 

Rotation, 3S. 
Alsike clover, 210-242. 
Andropogon Sorghuin, 95. 
Arkansas: 

Bermuda-grass, 333. 

Balanced ration, 28. 
Barley, 64, 05. 

Beardless spring, 216. 

Nurse crop for alfalfa, 216. 
Barley-and-peMS, 189. 
Barnyard millet, 74-80. 

— and cowpeas, 190-193. 
Bermuda-grass, 328-337. 

— pasture from cuttings, 330. 

— South, 10, 328. 
Black-eyed marrowfat pea, 176. 
Black-hulled White millet or kafir corn, 

l(i3. 
Bokhara clover, 231. 
Broad or horse-bean 272. 
Jiromuft inermis, 11, 338. 
Bronie grass, 338. 
Broom-legume, 173. 
Broom -corn, 95. 

— millet, 73. 

Cabbage. 301-308. 
California : 

Bermuda grass, 334. 

Continuous cropping, 23. 
Canada pea, 176. 

— and oats, 176. 



Canadian Beauty pea, 170. 

Carbohydrates, 28. 

Carrot, 288. 

Carter Half-sugar mangel, 280 

Carter Model kohlrabi, 310. 

Catch-crops, 18. 

— clover, red, 235. 

— clover, crimson, 244. 

— millet, 80. 

— oats, 03. 

— Pearl millet, 88, 

— rye, 49. 

— turnip. 288. 

— wheat, 59. 
Cereals. 17. 

Barley, 64, 65. 

Corn, 3, 132-152, 154-166. 

— sweet, 143-146, 148. 
Kafir corn, 9, 95-121. 
Millets, 73. 

Oats, 60-61. 
Rye, 4, 40-54. 
Sorghum, 9, 95-132. 
Whe;it, 4, 50-60. 
Cha'tochloa Itcilica, 80. 

— var. Geritianica. 81. 
Vifidis, 81. 

Clark, Geo. E., on mixed grasses, 203. 
Classes of forage crops, 6. 

Alfalfa, 17, 209-228. 

Alsike. 10, 210-242. 
Clinton, on millet, 83. 
Clover, 107. 

Class, 6. 

Crimson, 242-250. 

In rotation, 17. 

M.immoth red, 17, 239. 

Red, 3, 16,24, 231-237. 

With mixed grasses, 194. 

Wiih <.ats, 20. 



(-":,) 



37G 



INDEX 



Clover with corn, 21. 
- with corn silage, 45. 

— with corn, 4. 
White. 251, 252. 

Clubroot, cabbage, 306. 

Kohlrabi, 310. 
Coleman sorghum, 127. 
Combination crops with legumes, 175. 

— , warm season, 190. 
Conlinuons cropping, 23. 
Composition of forage ci'ops (see 

tables), 317-365. 
Concentrates, 275. 
Condition of land, 18. 
Corn, forage, 3, 132-152. 

Adaptability of varieties, 133. 

Class, 6. 

Dried corn fodder, 116-14R. 

Ill rotation, 17, 22. 

Main crop, 22. 

Silage, l.'.4-166. 

Stalks, 119-152. 

Stover, 149. 

With clover, 4. 
Cornell Experiment Station: 

Cabbaiie, 301. 

Kohlrabi, 309. 

Root-cvops, 275. 

Timothy, 320. 
Cost of nutrients in soiling crops, 

32. 
Cover-crops (see Catch-crops), 18, 42. 
Cow Hoi'n turnip, 280. 
Cowpea, 4, 17, 21, 22, 254-263. 

Adaptability of varieties, 256. 

Combinations, 190-193. 

— for green manure, 257. 

— for silage, 193. 
Varieties, 251. 

Crop combinations with legumes, 175. 

Crowder cowpea, 254. 

C. uciferoe, 292. 

Cultures of nitrogen-gathering bacteria, 
171. 

Curing and harvesting (see Harvest- 
ing), 25. 

Cuttings, Bermuda-grass, 330. 



Dhoura, 95. 

Digestible matter, 25, 27. 

— blossom stage, 25. 

— nitrogenous, 28. 

— non-nitrogenous, 28. 

— relation of kinds of nutrients, 28. 
Dodder — on alfalfa, 216. 

Doura, dhoura, durra, 95. 

Dried ration. 27. 

Dry matter— measure of forage crops, 

2, 5. 
Dry matter (see tables), 347-365. 
Dry-we.ather plants, 9. 

West, 9. 

Dunkirk clay loam — for hay, 321. 

Durra. 05. 

Dwarf Essex rape, 292. 

Early Aml)er sorghum, 122. 

Early Orange sorghum, 122. 

Efficiency of areas, 33. 

Egyptian corn, 95. 

Euchhvna luxurians, 94. 

Evergreen broom-corn, 97. 

Excelsior rye, 48. 

Extensive system, 14, 17. --<; 

Faha vulgaris, 272. " * 

Feeding, Principles, 27. 

Alfalfa, 227. ***' 

Barnyard millet, 79. 

Barley, 65. 

Barley-and-peas, 190. 

Bermuda-grass, 332. 

Brome grass (pasture), 343. 

Broom-corn, 73. 

Broom-corn millet, 91. 

Cabbage, 301. 

Clover, alsike, 241. 

— crimson, 250. 

— mammoth red, 239. 

— red, 236. 
Corn, maize, 142. 

— sweet, 145. 

— dried, 147. 

— dried sweet, 149. 

— silage, 165. 



INDEX 



377 



Feeding corn-stalks ov stover, IW, \yi. 

i'oxtiiil millet, 85. 

Japan clover, 274. 

Kafir com, 97. 

Kolilrabi, 308. 

Mangels, 282. 

Oats-anil-peas, 183, 187. 

Potato, 290. 

Rape, 29G-298. 

Rye, -.5. 

Sortjluim, 125. 

Sugar-beet, 287. 

Vetch, 271. 
Fertilizers: 

Alfalfa, 212. 

Barnyard-millet, 75. 

Barley, 64. 

Bermuda grass, 330. 

Brome grass, 340. 

Cabbage, 302. 

Clover, alfalfa, 212. 

— crimson, 214. 

— red, 232. 

— white, 252. 
Corn, 136. 

— sweet, 144. 

— silage, 154. 
Cowpea, 258. 
Kafir corn, 102. 
Mali gels, 281. 
Meadows, 317. 

Mixed grasses and clovers, 201. 
Oats, 61. 

Oats-and-peas, 177. 
Orchai'd-grass, 67. 
Pearl millet, 86. 
Rape, 293. 
Rye. 49. 
Rye-grass, 72. 
Silage, 154. 
Sorghum, 123. 
Soybean. 264. 
Sugar-beet. 286. 
Teosinte. 91. 
Turnip, 289. 
Wheat. 57. 
Fiuger-aud-toe of kohlrabi, 310. 



Flint corn, 1.32, 143. 

Fodder, definition of, 2. 

Food content in green stage, 4. 

Value measure of forage crojis, 2. 
Folger on sorghum, 127. 
Forage crops, definition of, 1. 

— classes, 6. 

— groups, 6. 

— for liay and for improving the 

land, 13. 

— for soiling, 27. 

— rations, 43. 
Foxtail millet, 80-85. 
Furze, 173. 

Germination table— cabbage, kohlrabi, 

303. 
German millet, 81. 
Giant rape, 293. 
Giant rye, 48. 

Golden Tankai'd mangel, 279. 
Golden Vine pea, 176. 
Golden Wonder millet. 81. 
Goliath kohlrabi, 310. 
Grain farming, 15. 

Growing rotation, 17, 18. 
Grasses: 

Green forage, 46. 

Groups, 6. 

In the South, 10. 

Bermuda- grass, 330-336. 

Brome grass, Russian, 338-343. 

Italian rye-grass, 70-72. 

Meadows, 11, 311. 

Mixtures, 16, 24. 

Mixed grasses and clovei's, 194. 

Orchard-grass, 66-69. 

Pasture, 8, 11, 311. 

Timothy, 10, To, 17, 320. 
Green forage grasses, 46. 
Green field pea, 176- 
Green Scotch pea, 176. 
Groups of forage crops, 6. 

Handling forage crops (see Harvest- 
ing), 26. 
Clover. 26. 



■iiL*. 



8 



INDEX 



llauey. Prof. J. G., 103. 
Harvesting and fAiriiig, 25. 

Alfalfa, 221. 

Barnyard millet, 7G. 

Bermuda-grass, !.!33. 

Brouie grass, Russian, 343. 

Cli.ver, alsike, 241. 

— crimson, 24"). 

— red, 230. 

Corn (maize), 141. 

— <lripd, 147. 

— silage, 1.')?, 1G3. 

— stover, 149. 
Cowpe;i, 2U1. 
Foxtail millet, 82. 
Grain, 11.'.. 
Japan clover, 274. 
Kafir corn, 99. 
Mangels, 282. 
Meadows, 31G. 

Mixed grasses and clovers, 208. 
Oats, G2. 

Oats-and-peas, 180-184. 
Oi'chard-grass, G8. 
Pearl millet, 88. 
Rape, 295. 
Rye, 52. 

Rye-grass, Italian, 72. 
Sorghum, 13G. 
Sugar-beet 286. 
Vetch, 271. 
Wheat, 56. 
Hay standards, 15. 
Admixtures, 16. 
Timothy, 15. 

— with other grasses, 16. 
Hay, meadow, 12. 

In rotation, 17. 
Yield, 14. 
Alfalfa, 228. 
Barnyard millet, 79. 
Bermuda-grass, 333. 
Brome grass, 343. 
Clover, crimson, 249. 

— red, 337. 
Cowpea, 2G2. 
Foxtail millet, 85. 



Hay, Japan clover, 274. 

Mixed grasses and clovers, 208. 
Oats, 63. 

— oats-and-peas, 181. 

— oats-and-votch, 189. 
Orchard-grass, 69. 
Rye-grass, 72. 

Hoi-se-tooth corn, 154. 
Hot-weather plants, 74. 
Humus, 13. 
Hungarian grass, 81. 

Illinois, corn, wheat, 22. 
Improvement of rotation, 17. 
Improving the land, 13. 
Indian corn, 3, 132. 
Indiana, corn, wheat, 22. 
Inoculation of soil, 1G8. 

for alfalfa, 21.5. 

methods, 170. 

Iowa, corn, wlieat, 22. 
Italian rye grass, 70-72. 

Japan clover, 273, 2/4. 
Jaitanese millet, 73. 
Jerusalem corn, 97. 

Kafir corn, 9, 95-121. 

— classes, 95. 

— with cowpeas, 190. 
soylieans, 190. 

— for grain, 115. 
Kale, 292. 

Kansas Experiment Station: 

Brome grass, 338. 

Kafir corn, 103. 

Sorghum, 127. 
Kentucky blue-grass, 16. 
Kohlrabi, 292, 308-:no. 
Lamson-Scribuer, on Bermuda-grass, 

330. 
Land and seeding (for special crops, 
see Preparation), 23. 

Improving the, by forage crops, 1 !. 

Preparation of the, 41. 
Leaching, 18. 
Learning corn. 99, 100. 



INDEX 



379 



Legumes: 
Alf;Uf;i, 209-230. 
C;iimd;i pea, i"C, 
Clover, alfalfa, 20i)-230. 

— alsike, 2i0-242. 

— mammoth red, 17, 239. 

— red, 3, IG, 24, 231-237. 

— white, 251, 252. 

— with gras.ses, 194. 
Cowpoa, 4, 17, 21, 22, 254, 2G3. 

— and barley, 189, 190. 

— and oats, 17G-186. 

— and votch, 1S7-189. 
Horse-bean, 272. 
Rape, 293-300. 
Soybean, 261-2GG. 
Velvet liean, 2GG. 
Vetel), 2G9-271. 

L"guminos:K3. 173. 
Leguminous forage crops 

Combination erops with, 175. 

(ironp, G. 

Kinds, 173. 

Nitrogen-gathering bacteria, 1G8, 1G9. 

— amount gathered, 172. 

— soil inoculation, 1G8. 

— — methods, 170. 

— nodules, 1G8. 
Nitrogenous food, 29. 

Lcsiiedi'za striata, 273. 
Lime: 

Alfalfa, 212. 

Cabbage, 305. 

Clover, red, 232. 

— white, 2.52. 
Meadows, 201. 
I'astuies, 201, 325. 

Listihg 107, 109. 

liocusl,, 173. 

Long ()r;i,nge carrot, 288. 

Long VVliite carrot, 28H. 

Louisiana, Bermuda-grass, 335. 

l^ouse, plant-, on peas, 183. 

Maize, 3, 17,132-152. 
Succession, 21, 
jNlilo maize, 95. 



Maize with cowpeas and soybeans, 193. 

— Long Red mangel, 279. 
Mammoth red clover, 239. 
Maud's Wonder millets, 85. 
Mangels, 279-28 1, 
Marl on cb)ver, 252. 
Mastodon corn, 154. 
xMeadows ami pastures, 11-:!11. 

Bermuda-grass, 330. 

Group, G. 

Mixtures, 312-314. 
Mflilotus, 231. 
I Millets, 73. 

Barnyard, 74-80. 

Foxtail, 80-85. 

Hungarian grass, 82. 

.lapauese, 73. 

■lapauese broom-corn, 90-92. 

Kafir corn, 95-121. 

Mile maize, 95. 

Pearl, 8G-90. 

Sorghum, 122-131. 

Teosinte, 94. 
M ilo maize, 95. 
.Minnesota, Brome grass, 338. 
Mississippi, Bermuihi-grass, 335. 

Corn, wheal, 22. 

Rotations, 22. 
Mixed grasses and clovers, 194. 
Mixtures : 

Grasses and clovei', 198. 

For meadow, 312, 311. 

Permaiii'tit pasture. 321. 

Timothy and other grasses, IG, 21. 

Nebraska, brome grass. 338. 
Newman, J. S., on I'.ermnda-grass, 335. 
Nitrate of soda. (See list under ferti- 
lizers.) 
Nitrogen in food, G. 

Cultures, 171. 
Nitrogen-gathei'ing bacteria, 1G8. 

Legumes, 1G8. 

Soil inoculation, 1G8. 
Nitrogenous digestible matter, 28. 

Legumes, 29. 
Noduh's, 1G9. 



380 



INDEX 



Non-nitrogenous substances, food, 28. 
Non-sacfhai'ine sorghum, 9, 95, 103. 
Nortli Dukota, brome gi-ass, 338. 
Nurse crops for clover and grasses, 
195. 
— for alfalfa, 21G. 
Nutrients, 28. 
Cost in soiling crops, 32. 
Definition, 5. 
For nitrogen-gathering organisms, 

171. 
Yield of, in various crops : 
Alfalfa, 224. 
Barnyard millet, 80. 
Barley, Go. 

Barley-and-peas, 190. 
Broom-corn millet, 92. 
Cabbage, 308. 
Clover alfalfa, 224. 

— alsike, 242. 

— mammoth red, 239. 
—red, 237. 
—crimson, 24.'i, 249. 
Corn, 141. 

— sweet, 145. 

— dried corn fodder, 147. 
sweet corn fodder, 148. 

— silage, 16G. 

— stalks or stover, 152. 
Cowpea, 262. 
Hungarian millet, 83. 
Kafir corn, lOO. 
Mangels, 2^'2. 

Mixed grasses and clover, 207. 
< Oats, 03. 

Orch;ird-grass, 69. 
Oats-and-peas, 186. 
Pearl millet, 90. 
Rape, 296, 300. 
Root-crops, 278. 
Rye, ,'')4. 
Rye-grass, 72. 
Sorghum, 126. 
Soybean, 265. 
Sugar-beet, 287. 
Teosiute, 94. 
Turnip, 290. 



Nutrients, yield of, in vai'ious crops: 
Vetch, 271. 
Wlieat, GO. 

Oats, 60-64. 

In rotation, 17. 

As a nurse crop for alfalfa, 217. 

West, 17. 
Oats-and-peas, 176-187. 

— vetch, 187-189. 
Ohio, corn, 22. 
Orchard -grass, 65-69. 

Nortliwest, 10. 
With timothy. 16. 

Panicum Crus-galU, 73. 

miliaceum, 73. 
Pasturage, 8. 
P.astures and meadows, 11, 311. 

group, 6. 

mixtures for, 324. 

renewing, 327. 

Pasturing -alfalfa, 230. 

Barley, 65. 

Bermuda-grass, 330. 

BroTue grass, 343. 

Clover, alfalfa, 230. 

— alsike, 241. 

— crimson, 250. 

— red, 238. 

— white, 251. 
Cowpea, 263. 
Japan clover, 274. 
Oats, 62. 

Orchai'd-grass, 69. 
Permanent pastures, 311. 
Rape, 296. 

Rye, 48. 

Soiling versus, 30. 

Vetch. 271. 

Wheat, 56. 
Pearl millet, 5, 86-90. 
Penicillaria, 85. 
Pennlsetum spicatitni. 73, 85. 
Pests: 

Clubi'oot on c;ibV)age and kohlrabi, 
306. 310. 



INDEX 



381 



Pests, Doililer, 216. 

Finger-aiid-toe, 310. 

Plant-louse, 183. 
Phosplioiic acid (see Fertilizers). 

— in hay, Penusylvauia and Illinois, 

321, 322. 
PI ant- food: 

Demand, 40. 

For summer crops, 101. 
Plans for rotation, 38. 
Plant-louse, 183. 
Plifimodiophora brassicce, 310. 
Potato, 290. 

Sweet, 290. 
Preparation of soil, 24, 41. 

Alfalfa, 211. 

Barnyard millet, 7ti. 

— - Barley, 64. 

Bermuda-grass, 330. 

— — Brome grass, '■'>'.!. 
Bi'oora-corn millet, 90. 

— — Cabbage, 302. 
Carrot, 288. 

Clover, alfalfa, 211. 

alsike, 240. 

crimson, 244. 

Corn, 134. 

silage, 154. 

Foxtail millet, 84. 

■ Kafir corn, 107. 

Mangels, 280. 

Meadows, 313. 

Mixed grasses and clovers, 193. 

Oats-and-peas, 177. 

Orchard- grass, 66. 

Pasture, 325. 

Rape, 293. 

Rye, 50. 

Rye-grass, 70. 

Sorghum, 123. 

Soybean, 264. 

Sugar-beet, 286. 

Vetch, 2C9. 

Wheat, 56. 

I'rinciples underlying forage crops, 13. 

Proso millet, 90. 

I'rotein (see Nutrients), 6, 



Prussian blue pea, 176. 

Pulse family, 173. 

Purple Vienna kohlrabi, 308. 

Quadroon cowpea, 254. 

Queen of Denmark sugar-beet, 286. 

Rape, 20, 292-300. 
Rations : 

Balanced, 28. 

Dry, 27. 

Forage crop, 43. 

Succulent, 27. 
Iteana luxurians, 94. 
Red bud, 173. 
Red clover, 3, 232-238. 

— for forage, 6. 

— with corn, 4. 

Red Globe mangel, 279. 
Red-top, 10. 

— with timothy, 16. 
Regional questions, 9. 
Renewing pastures, 327. 

Bermuda grass, 336. 

Brome grass, 342. 
Renovator, soil, 15. 
Rhode Island Experiment Station grass 

mixture, 203. 
Roberts, on Foxtail millet, 83. 
Robertson mixture, 272. 
Root crops ; 

Comparison with other fodders, 275. 

Group, 6. 
Rotal ion: 

Cabbage, .301. 

East and West, 17. 

Eight-year, for hay, 321, 

Four-year, 22. 

Improvement of, 17. 

Legume, 16, 17. 

Purpose, 14. 
Roughage crops, definition, 1. 

— dry, for winter, 8. 
Rural Branching doura, 97. 

Rural Tlioroughbred White Flint corn, 

133. 
Rus.viau Brome grass, 338-343. 



382 



INDI'JX 



Rut:ib;if:;i (soo Turnip), 289. 
Rye, 4,46, 54. 

With corn, 18. 

Silage, 45. 
R.ve-t;niss, Itnli.-in, 70-72. 

With tiuiotliy, IG. 

Saccharine sorghum, 9, 122. 
Sanitary milk. 31. 
Seeding, Land and, 23. 

Alfalfa, 210. 

Barnyard millet, 76. 

Barley, 65. 

Barley-and peas, 189. 

Bermuda-grass, 330. 

Broad-bean, 272. 

Brome grass, 342. 

Cabbage, 302. 

(^arrot, 288. 

Clover, alfalfa, 216. 

— alsike, 240. 

— crimson, 244. 

— mammoth red, 239. 

— red, 234. 

— white, 252. 
Corn, 139. 

— dried fodder, 146. 

— silage, 157. 
Cowpea, 257. 
Foxt;iil millet, 82. 
Japan clover, 274. 
Kafir corn, 110-113. 
]M angels, 281. 
Meadows, 314. 

ilixed grasses and clovers, 194. 

Oats, 01. 

O.-its-and-peas and vetch, 179-187. 

Orchard-grass, 60. 

Pastures, 321. 

Pearl millet, 86. 

Rape, 291. 

Rye, 52. 

Rye-grass, 70. 

Sorghum, 123. 

Soybean, 261. 

Sugarliee^, 286. 

Teosiute, 94. 



Seeding, turnip, 289. 

Vetch, 269. 

Wheat, 58. 
Sctaria Italica. 81. 
Short-top White kohlrabi, 308. 
Short White carrot, 288. 
Silage, corn, 153-166. 

Cowpea, 193. 

Millet, 89. 

Crimson clover, 45. 

Rje, 45. 

Sorghum, 126. 

Compared to stover and grain, 100. 

Summer, 44. 
Silo: 

Capacity, 162. 

Construction, 159. 

Filling, 161. 

Size, 104. 
Silt, 24. 
Soil, favorable for Alfalfii, 211. 

- — Barnyard millet, 76. 
Barley, 61. 

Bermuda-grass, 329. 

Broad bean, 270. 

Brome grass, 338. 

Broom-corn millet, 90. 

- — Cabbage, 301. 

Clover alfalfa, 211. 

alsike, 210. 

crimson, 240. 

red, 232. 

Corn, 134. 

— silage, 154. 

Cowpea, 253. 

Japan clover, 273. 

Kafir corn, 102. 

Kohlrabi, 309. 

Mangels, 280. 

Meadows, 320. 

Rape, 293. 

Rye, 50. 

- — Sorghum, 122. 

- — Vetch, 270. 
Soil, Improving, 13. 

Inoculation, 108-172. 
rrotecling, 10. 



IXDEX 






Soil, Renovating, 15. 
Soiling, Advantages of, 30. 

Delinition of, 2. 

Disadvantages, 31. 

Forage crops for, 27. 

Summer, 190. 

Versus pasturing, 30. 
Sorghum, 9. 

Non- saccharine, 9.'5. 

Saccharine, 122. 

Vnlgare, 93. 
South, forage conditions in, 10, 22. 

Bermuda-grass, 328. 
Southern White corn, 154. 
South Carolina, Bermuda-grass, 335. 
South Dakota, Brome grass, 338. 
Soybean, 21,261-200. 

In combination, 190. 

With kafir corn, 190. 

With maize, 193. 

With sorghum, 191. 
Straw, 40. 

Succulence, importance of, 4. 
Succulent ration, 27. 
Sugar beet, 28G, 287. 
Summer soiling, 190. 
Sweet corn, 115, 148. 
System, extensive, 14. 

Intensive, 17. 

Pasturage, 7. 

Rotation, 34. 

— examples, 35-37. 



Tare, 209. 
Teosinte, 73, 94. 
Thousand-fold rye, 48. 
Tiniotliy, 15, 21. 

Cornell, 320. 

East, 17. 

West, 17. 
Top-dressing: 

Bermuda-grass, 330. 

Lime (see Lime), 12. 

Meadows, 12, 318. 

Pastures, 12, 325. 
Tracy, Professor, on 
332. 



T5ermnda-gr; 



TrifoUam hybridntn, 231. 
incaniatiiin, 231. 
vii'dium, 231. 
pratensc, 231. 
pratense perennc, 231. 
rcpens, 231. 
Turnip, 289, 290. 

Unknown cowpea, 254. 

Value of forage crop, 2, 5. 
Alfalfa, 225. 
B irnyard millet, 71. 
Barley, 05. 
Bermuda-grass, 332. 
Cabbage, 301. 
Clover, alfalfa, 225. 

— alsike, 241. 

— crimson, 247. 

— red, 231. 
Corn, 132, 142. 

— sweet, 141. 

— dried corn fodder, 1 18. 
sweet, 1 18. 

— silage, 105. 

— stoxer, 1 19. 
Cowpea, 2.58. 
Japan clover, 273. 
Kafir corn, 97. 
Kohlrabi, 3i)8. 
Mangels, 282. 285. 
Oats, 02. 

Oats-and-peas, 181. 
Pastures, i>0. 
Pearl millet, 88. 
Potato, 290. 
Rape, 293, 296, 
Rye, 48. 
Rye-grass, 71. 
Sorghum, 125. 
Soybean, 205. 
Sugar-beet, 287. 
Turnip, 288. 
Vetch, 271. 
Wheat, 58. 

Vegetable matter in soil, 13. 
Velvet b(>an. 20i. 



384: 



INDEX 



Votc'li, 17, 2G0-271. 

With oats, 187- 1S9. 
Vicia Faba. 272. 

saliva, 187. 
Vilmorin's Half-su^ar Rosy mangel. 



Warm-season combinations, 190. 
Weeds of value, 18. 

In pasture, 320. 
West, forage conditions in, 9. 

West Virginia Experiment Station, 
meadows, 319. 
Wheat, 4, 5G-GJ. 

East, 17. 

Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, 22. 

Rotation, 22. 

West, 17. 
White Flint coi-n, Rural Thorough, 
bred, 133, 113. 

Green-top sugar-beet, 286. 

Rose-top sugai'-beet, 28G. 

Vienna kohlrabi, 308. 
Winter cover, 38. 
Wistaria, 173. 
Wonderful cowpea, 254. 

Year — Four-year rotation, 22. 

Five-year rotation, 22. 
Vellow Branching doura, 97. 

Globe mangels, 280. 

Milo maize, 97. 



Yellow wood, 173. 
Yield— Alfalfa, 222. 

Barnyard millet, 79. 

Barley, Go. 

Bermuda-grass, 332. 

Broad or horse-bean, 273. 

Broom-corn millet, 92. 

Cabbage, 308. 

Clover, alfalfa, 222. 

— alsike, 211. 

— crimson, 218. 

— niani-.noth re 1, 233. 

— red, 2';G. 
Cowpea, 2G2. 
Kafir corn, 100, 120. 
Mangels, 2S1. 

Mixed grasses and clover, 207. 

Oats, G2, Gl. 

Oats-aiid-peas, 184. 

Peari millet, 88. 

Rape, 300. 

Rye, 53. 

Rye-grass, 71. 

Sorghum, 125. 

Soybean, 265. 

Sugar-beet, 287. 

Teosinte, 94. 

Turnip, 289. 

Vetcli, 271. 

Wlieat, 5S. 

Zuntz, 27G. 



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